INTRODUCTION:

The field of nanotechnology is experiencing significant growth within the scientific community, mostly attributed to its potential for application in the production of many novel materials^1–3. This technique is employed to synthesize and characterize materials with structural attributes that lie within the range of solitary atoms and bulk materials, namely at the nanoscale level spanning from 1nm to 100nm. There are numerous applications of this technology across various disciplines, such as textiles, energy, medicine, agriculture, and drug discovery^4–8. According to the current literature, a range of metal nanoparticles, including iron, zinc, gold, and silver, exhibit considerable potential for biomedical applications^9–12. The potential for AgNPs to heal wounds has been one of the applications studied¹³.

AgNPs can be produced using several means, including physical, chemical, and biological synthesis techniques. The principal constraints connected with the physical and chemical techniques utilized for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) are the utilization of materials that lack environmental sustainability and the subsequent rise in production costs^14,15. Biological or biogenic approaches are seen as advantageous in comparison to alternative methods owing to their non-toxic, cost-effective, and environmentally sustainable operations¹⁶. Microorganisms and plant crude extracts are utilized as biological agents for the synthesis of AgNPs.As per the literature, the synthesis of AgNPs using plant extracts is comparatively simpler than employing microorganisms. The latter method necessitates the cultivation and upkeep of microbial cultures, along with the provision of specific incubation conditions¹⁷.

The process of wound healing is a multifaceted biological phenomenon wherein the skin undergoes self-repair following an injury. Multiple pharmaceutical agents are employed in the therapeutic management of wounds; however, their utilization is accompanied by considerable financial burden and potential adverse reactions¹⁸. As a result, selecting the appropriate wound dressing is critical to accelerating healing, lowering treatment expenditures, and improving the patient's overall health. The utilization of AgNPs as antimicrobial agents with a wide range of effectiveness has the potential to induce aseptic conditions and facilitate efficient wound healing by regulating cytokine activity¹⁹(Figure 1(.

Figure 1. AgNPs wound-healing mechanism.

The genus Ficus has approximately 850 species of woody trees and shrubs in the plant family Moraceae^20,21. The predominant species of the genus is Ficus carica, known for its production of the widely recognized common Figure²². Additional well-known species of Ficus include Ficus sycomorus, Ficus religiosa L., Ficus benghalensis L., and Ficus racemosa L^23–26. These plants contain a variety of natural compounds, including analogues of caffeic acid, sterols, flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids^27,28. Most Ficus species exhibit a variety of biological activities, including anticancer, antimicrobial, and antidiabetic²⁹activities.According to reports, various species of Ficus have been used in the synthesis of AgNPs. These species include Ficus carica³⁰; Ficus benthalensis³¹; Ficus Benjamina³²; Ficus krishnae³³; Ficus cordata³⁴; and Ficus retusa³⁵. Several biomolecules, such as polyphenols and other water-soluble compounds, are responsible for silver ion reduction and AgNPs stabilization³⁶. Ficus binnendijkiiis a Ficus family member that is less commonly found and known as "Ficus Amstel Queen." It grows naturally as a huge tree, shrub, or houseplant and is found in a variety of countries³⁷. The blooms, which are not easily noticeable, undergo blooming in the springtime, followed by small fruits that display a variety of colors, such as green and yellow, until eventually maturing into a vivid red color. It had been reported that the crude extract of Ficus binnendijkiiin petroleum ether exhibited a dose-dependent decrease in pain, fever, and inflammation³⁸.

The aim of research in the area of wound medicine is to provide a rapid and cost-efficient method for producing dressings. There are different types of dressings available, including woven and non-woven variants. However, it is worth noting that woven dressings are more easily accessible and simpler to apply compared to non-woven alternatives. Cotton-fabric dressings treated with silver nanoparticles offer numerous advantages in the context of wound healing. Moist wound environments have been found to facilitate angiogenesis, tissue regeneration, and cell migration. The antibacterial properties of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) contribute to reducing the risk of infection, a common obstacle in the healing process of chronic wounds. The utilization of these dressings has demonstrated the ability to accelerate wound healing and improve outcomes in clinical trials and animal studies, particularly in instances involving infected wounds.

The primary aim of this study was to effectively produce AgNPs using the hydroethanolic extract derived from the leaves of Ficus binnendijkii for the first time. Quantitative analyses were performed to assess the total amounts of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids found in FE. The AgNPs were further subjected to characterization using TEM spectroscopy, UV-vis, FTIR, and XRD. Additionally, the effectiveness of the extract in promoting wound healing was evaluated and compared to the wound healing activity of AgNPs when applied to cotton fabric dressings.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Chemicals and reagents:

All the chemicals and reagents used in the present study were of analytical grade. The chemicals and reagents included: ethanol (97%), Folin-Ciocalteu reagent, gallic acid (purity 99%), copper acetate (purity 98%), ammonia hydroxide (18-20% solution), and sodium hydroxide (purity 97%), which were purchased from Loba Chemie (Mumbai, India). Citric acid anhydrous (CA) (purity 99%) was supplied by Thermo Scientific Chemicals (USA). Silver nitrate (99.8% purity) was purchased from Panreac Quimica SA (Spain). Deionized water was used throughout all experiments.

Collection of plant materials:

Fresh Ficus binnendijkii (Miq.) family Moraceaeleaves were collected from the Arboretum botanic garden in Giza Governorate, Egypt. The plant material was graciously identified by a plant taxonomy consultant at the Ministry of Agriculture and former head of the Orman Botanical Garden in Giza, Egypt. The plant leaves were thoroughly rinsed in running tap water and subsequently air-dried in a shaded environment. The dried leaves were fragmented, powdered using an electric grinding apparatus, and meticulously preserved in hermetically airtight bottles prior to use.

Preparation of the crude extract:

Ficus binnendijkiidry leaves (50g) were soaked in 500 ml of 70% ethanol at room temperature for 60 minutes before being sonicated in an ultrasonic bath for 20 minutes. Following that, the extract was filtered through a 0.45m filter and concentrated in a rotary evaporator at reduced pressure. The extract was phytochemically screened before refrigerating it for further analysis.

Determination of total phenolic and flavonoidcontents:

The Folin-Ciocalteu technique³⁹ was used to determine the total phenolic content of the ethanolic extract. Using a calibration curve established with gallic acid standards, the results were represented as gallic acid equivalents. The total flavonoid content was estimated using the aluminum chloride colorimetric method⁴⁰. The calibration curve was plotted using standard quercetin.

Determination of the total tannins:

The gravimetric approach using the copper acetate method was used to quantify total tannin content⁴¹. It is based on the precipitation of tannins as copper tannate, which is then ignited to produce copper oxide. The residual copper oxide is weighed, and the amount of tannins (mg/g, dry-weight basis) is taken into account, as one gram of copper oxide equals 1.305g of tannins.

Determination of total alkaloids:

By extracting 10.0g of defatted plant materials with 70% ethanol, total alkaloids were calculated gravimetrically. The ethanolic extract was vacuum-concentrated, acidified with 2N HCl, and filtered. To remove unwanted ingredients, the filtrate was partitioned with chloroform. Ammonia hydroxide was used to modify the pH of the aqueous phase to 8.59, and the liberated alkaloid bases were extracted three times using chloroform. The chloroform extract was filtered, vacuum evaporated, and weighed to determine the total alkaloids (% w/w)⁴².

Protein content:

The protein content, represented as total nitrogen content, was determined using the micro-Kjeldahl apparatus⁴³.

Total sugars:

The anthrone technique was used to calculate total sugars⁴³. Six mL of anthrone solution (2g/L of H₂SO₄, 95%) was mixed with a 3mL sample and heated in a boiling water bath for 3 minutes. Following cooling, the established color was measured at 620nm using spectrophotometry.

Analysis of phenolic compounds by HPLC:

The HPLC-PDA (Agilent 1100 Series) technique was employed to assess the qualitative and quantitative contents of polyphenols in the FE.At 40ºC, an Agilent Zorbax 300SB-C18 (5m, 4.6 250mm) column was employed. The mobile phase was a methanol/water gradient with 0.1% acetic acid at a flow rate of 1.0 ml/min⁴³.

Synthesis of AgNPs:

To 100ml of distilled water, five milliliters of FE were added. Dropwise, 1ml of 0.1 M silver nitrate (AgNO₃) solution was added to the preceding mixture at 60^oC. The influence of pH was investigated by changing the reaction at various pH values (5.5, 9, and 11) with a 2.5% sodium hydroxide solution.The reaction was stirred continuously for various intervals (15-60 minutes), and the bio-reduction of AgNO₃ was monitored periodically with a double-beam UV-vis spectrophotometer.

Characterization of AgNPs:

The initial formation of AgNPs was confirmed using the UV-Vis spectrophotometer (T80 series, PG Instrument Ltd., UK). The functional groups were identified using the FTIR spectrometer (JASCO, FTIR-6100) within the range of 4000–400 cm⁻¹. The size and shape of the formed AgNPs were determined using transmission electron microscopy (TEM Model JEM-2100). The crystalline configuration of the biosynthesized AgNPs was analyzed using X-ray diffraction (Philips, Eindhoven, Netherlands).

Treatment of cotton fabrics:

100% cotton fabric (mill-desized, scoured, and bleached) was provided by the EL-Nasr Company for Spinning, Weaving, and Dyeing in El-Mehalla Elkubra, Egypt. Cotton samples of 20cm x 20cm were soaked in four beakers containing 50ml of different treatments [(FE), (FE/1% CA), (AgNPs), and (AgNPs/1% CA)]. Subsequently, these samples were picked up and squeezed at 100% pick-up at continuous pressure. The treated fabrics (cotton dressings) were dried for 5 minutes at 80°C and cured for 3 minutes at 120°C. Dermazin cream obtained from Cairo's pharmacy markets had been impregnated onto a cotton sample measuring 20cm x 20cm as a positive control, and another cotton sample was left untreated (blank).

Washing endurance:

The treated cotton fabric dressings were washed ten times in an automatic laundry machine at 40°C using a standard detergent with a concentration of 3%, as recommended by ISO 6330:2021.

Morphology of finished cotton fabrics:

The morphology of different cotton fabric dressings was examined using an electron scanning microscope (SEM, Quanta FEG-250). The dressings were tested both before and after washing.

Experimental animals:

Male albino rats of the Sprague Dawley strain weighing 130-150g were procured from the National Research Center's animal house in Cairo, Egypt. The animals were kept under the same conditions and fed the same standard laboratory diet, which included a vitamin mixture (1%), a mineral mixture (4%), maize oil (10%), sucrose (20%), cellulose (0.2%), casein (10.5%), and starch (54.3%). All animals were handled in compliance with the institutional ethical committee's recommendations. Rats were anesthetized using an open-mask approach, and their backs were shaved with electric clippers to create wounds. Excision wounds of ~ 2 cm² were created by removing skin from the shaved area⁴⁴. Sixty rats were divided into ten groups. The injured rats were individually healed with untreated cotton dressings in the control group (group I) and cotton dressings treated with a standard drug, Dermazin cream (group II).Groups III-VI represented wounded rats treated with unwashed cotton dressingstreated with FE, FE combined with a bio-binder CA, FE combined with AgNPs, and FE combined with AgNPs and CA, respectively. The wounded rats in groups VII-Xincluded washed cotton dressingstreated with previous treatments, respectively.The dressings (1.5×1.5cm) were changed on a daily basis, and wounds were inspected, measured, and photographed. The progressive change in wound healing was assessed in mm². Wound contraction was measured as a percentage reduction in the size of the original wound⁴⁵.

Wound area on day 0 – Wound area on day n

% Wound contraction = ------------------------------- × 100

Wound area on day 0

where n represents the number of days on which measurements were recorded.

Statistical analysis:

The standard deviation (mean±S.D.) and mean value of six animals in each group were provided. A post hoc Duncan's multiple range test (DMRT) was used after an analysis of variance (ANOVA) test to establish whether the data were statistically significant. A probability value of ˂ 0.05 was considered statistically significant.

RESULTS AND DISSCUSION:

Qualitative and quantitative phytochemical analysis:

Screening assays are used in this work to validate the phytocomponents of FE since there is a well-established correlation between the phytoconstituents of plants and their biological potential. The data recorded in Table 1 confirms the presence of sixphytoconstituents, including flavonoids, alkaloids, tannins, terpenes, carbohydrates, and saponins. Furthermore, quantitative analysis of the bioactive compounds listed in Table 2 demonstrated that the leaves had a high concentration of total carbohydrates (12.33±1.23mg glucose E/100g extract), phenolics (9.47±0.6mg GAE/100g extract), proteins (7.25±0.73mg/100g extract), and tannins (1.55±0.02mg/100g). Total flavonoids and alkaloids (0.4±0.12mg QE/100g extract and 0.36±1.22, respectively) were also determined. Several Ficus species, including F. benjamina L. and F. lyrata Warb., contained higher levels of total phenolics, flavonoids, and tannin^28,46.

Table 1. Preliminary phytochemical screening of FE

Chemical class	Result
Flavonoids	+
Alkaloids	+
Tannins	+
Terpenes and/or steroids	+
Carbohydrates	+
Anthraquinones	-
Saponins	+

(+) and (-) indicates the presence and absence of chemical class, respectively.

Table 2. Quantitative phytochemical screening of FE

Pharmacopoeial Constant	FE
Tannin	1.55±0.02
Proteins	7.25±0.73
Total carbohydrates (mg Glucose E/100g extract)	12.33±1.23
Alkaloids	0.36± 1.22
Phenolics (mg GAE/100g extract)	9.47±0.6
Flavonoids (mg QE /100g extract)	0.4±0.12

HPLC was also used to identify and quantify the major phenolic compounds in the FE. Quinic acid (6937.04 ppm), gallic acid (61.25ppm), coumarin (9.30ppm), and quercetin (9.00ppm) were identified as the most abundant compounds, as depicted in Table 3 and Figure 2. The retention time and absorption spectrum observed in this study were found to be identical to those reported in the relevant standards⁴⁴_.Elhawary and colleagues⁴⁷ employed HPLC-MS/MS-based chemometric analysis to identify several polyphenols present in the raw extracts of thirteen species of Ficus, not including Ficus binnendijkii. Several Ficus species, including F. benjamina L. and F. lyrata Warb., were reported to contain higher levels of total phenolics, flavonoids, and tannin^28,46_.

Table 3.HPLC profile of phenolic peaks of FE

No.	Peak Name	Retention Time (min)	Relative area %	Amount (ppm)
1	Gallic acid	2.65	12.44	61.25
2	Quinic acid	3.37	1.83	6937.04
3	Coumarin	3.74	3.17	9.30
4	-	5.05	7.48	n.a.
5	Quercetin	8.07	3.28	9.00
6	Kaempherol	10.01	0.35	n.a.
7	-	10.67	0.31	n.a.
8	-	13.26	3.14	n.a.
9	-	14.35	0.69	n.a.

Figure 2. HPLC chromatogram

Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles:

High-phenolic plant material can be used as a reducing agent to transform metal ions into metallic nanoparticles^48,49. In our investigation, AgNPs were formed by swirling theFEwith AgNO₃ solution for 15~60 minutes at a temperature of 60°C. The noticeable color change from pale green to reddish brown in the first fifteen minutes proved that AgNPs had formed. A UV-vis spectrophotometer with a wavelength range of 300–600 nm was used to monitor the reaction. As per the literature, color change plays a crucial role in the biosynthesis of AgNPs^50,51. The reddish-brown color observed can potentially be attributed to the transition of surface plasmon resonance (SPR)⁵². The SPR of AgNPs produced by FE was studied at three pH levels (5.5, 9, and 11) and a duration of 15~60 minutes (Figure3a-c). The experiments were carried out at a temperature of 60^oC. At pH 5.5, a moderate absorption spectrum at 454 nm was detected (Figure 1a). The SPR peak that is produced at this pH value is considered unstable, rendering it inappropriate for facilitating the formation of silver nanoparticles⁵³.

The narrowing and sharpening of the absorbance peaks seen in the reaction mixture as the pH was increased to alkalinity suggests that the AgNPs exhibited a spherical morphology and reduced size. The enhancement in absorption peak intensities, centered at 408 and 412nm, was seen when the pH was adjusted to a range of 9 to 11 for a duration of 15~60 minutes at a temperature of 60°C. The experimental findings suggest that the peak intensity of the SPR reached its maximum at a pH value of 11 and an incubation time of 30minutes (Figure 3c). Based on extant literature, it has been observed that very basic media have the ability to serve as a suitable environment for the synthesis of AgNPs^54,55.

The morphological properties of AgNPs biosynthesized from FE were assessed using TEM and XRD techniques. Figure 3d shows a TEM image of the nanoparticles with a spherical morphology and particle diameters of an average of 3.15nm. According to the data, all nanoparticles are well separated, and no agglomeration occurred. XRD analysis was used to determine the crystalline nature of the AgNPs.

The XRD patterns presented in Figure 3e exhibit five distinct diffraction peaks within the 2θ range of 10°-90°. These peaks occur at 37.98°, 44.14°, 64.19°, 77.08°, and 81.20° and can be attributed to the crystalline planes (111), (200), (220), (311), and (222), respectively, of the face-centered-cubic (FCC) structure of the AgNPs. The peak corresponding to the (111) crystallographic plane exhibits a notably higher intensity in comparison to the remaining peaks. This observation suggests that there is a notable prevalence of nanoparticles within the (111) crystallographic plane. The peaks were identified using a comparative analysis with the reference card number (04-002-1347) provided by the International Center for Diffraction Data (ICDD). The observed high resolution of the XRD peaks can be attributed to the presence of phenolic compounds and flavonoids in the crude extract of Ficus binnendijkii leaves, which function as stabilizing agents for the biosynthesized AgNPs. Previous studies have demonstrated the efficacy of polyphenols and flavonoids in facilitating the reduction of silver metal ions into AgNPs⁵⁵.

FT-IR spectroscopy was used to identify the specific biomolecules responsible for stabilizing and reducing silver ions. The process of identifying functional groups involved a comparison between the intensity bands observed and established standard values. Figure 3fdepicts the spectra of both the AgNPs and the FE. Both spectra display broad peaks at 3715 cm^-1, which corresponds to the stretching of the amide N-H bond, and at 3406 cm^-1, which corresponds to the stretching vibration of hydroxyl and phenolic groups (O-H). Additional weak peaks were detected at 2920 and 2850 cm^-1, suggesting the presence of alkyl C-H stretching. The peak that is prominently noticed at a wavenumber of 1618 cm^-1 is most likely attributed to the stretching vibration of the carbon-carbon double bond (C=C) present in aromatic rings that are commonly found in polyphenols. Moreover, the observed peak can be ascribed to the stretching vibration of the carbon-oxygen double bond (C=O) in amide functional groups. Additionally, it is conceivable that the bands detected at 1406, 1072, and 1167 cm^-1 may be associated with phenol or tertiary alcohol, primary amine, and C-N stretching vibrations in amides, respectively.

Upon comparing the FT-IR spectra of the extract obtained from Ficus binnendijkiileaveswith those of biosynthesized AgNPs, it is apparent that there is a noticeable decrease in the strength of peaks related to the leaves extract in the AgNPs spectrum. The observed reduction indicated that a large number of the functional groups in the extract were actively engaged in AgNO₃ reduction and the creation of a stabilizing layer on the surface of the biosynthesized AgNPs.The reduction of Ag⁺ ions to Ag^o and the stabilization of AgNPs have been reported to be potentially influenced by several components, such as polysaccharides, flavonoids, phenolic compounds, alkaloids, and proteins^{36, 56}.Table 4presented here displays the significant peaks observed in the spectrum of the plant extract as well as the matching peaks identified in the spectra of the AgNPs, providing a visual depiction. The existence of secondary metabolites in the extract caused the reduction and stability of AgNPs, leading to fluctuations in the size and intensity of several peaks.

Table 4. FTIR peaks of FE and AgNPs

Peak	Functional Groups of FE	Peak	Functional Groups of AgNPs
3715	amide N-H stretch	3715	amide N-H stretch
3406	alcohol/phenol OH stretch	3406	alcohol/phenol OH stretch
2920	alkyl C-H stretch	2921	alkyl C-H stretch
2850	alkyl C-H stretch	2850	alkyl C-H stretch
1618	secondary amine, NH bend	1593	secondary amine, NH bend
1406	phenol or tertiary alcohol	1406	phenol or tertiary alcohol
1167	tertiary amine, CN stretch	-	-
1072	primary amine, CN stretch	1091	primary amine, CN stretch
815	CH 1,4 disubstitution	-	-

Loading and characterization ofcotton dressings with ethanolic extract and biogenic AgNPs:

The experimental procedure involved immersing cotton dressings into individual beakers containing various solutions, including extract, extract with 1% binder, AgNPs, and AgNPs with 1% binder. The loaded fabrics were then squeezed to guarantee a constant wetpick-up of 100% of the cotton sample weight. Following that, the AgNPs were affixed to the cotton fabric surface using a heat-based curing technique. Figure 4 illustrates the morphological characteristics of treated cotton dressings,whether washed or unwashed ones, as observed using SEM. The presented images effectively illustrate the characteristic attributes of cotton dressings, namely their inherent softness, uniformity, and smooth texture. Upon finishing various treatments, the surface of cotton dressings exhibited an increase in roughness. The SEM images also demonstrated a homogeneous dispersion of various treatments throughout the fabric's surface, displaying a slender and uniform morphology. The SEM images provide further confirmation that the AgNPs remain fixed on the surfaces of the dressings, even after undergoing ten washing cycles.⁵⁷

Figure 4. SEM images of dressings with different treatments: unwashed cotton dressings treated with EF, FE/CA, AgNPs, and AgNPs/CA represented by images A, C, E, and G, respectively; washed dressings treated with EF, FE/CA, AgNPs, and AgNPs/CA represented by images B, D, F, and H, respectively.

Evaluation of wound healing activity:

Although the wound-healing properties of many Ficus species have been welldocumented^58-60, there is a lack of research on the potential wound-healing properties of FE and its biosynthesized AgNPs. Therefore, this study aims to explore the wound healing properties of cotton dressings that are treated with FE or its biosynthesized AgNPs, with or without a CA binder, under both normal and washing conditions.

The wound healing efficiency of the treated cotton dressing was evaluated using male albino rats. The extent to which a medication reduces the dimensions of a wound is used to evaluate its efficacy in promoting healing.

Following the wounding procedure, each group's ability for wound closure was evaluated by comparing the proportion of wound contraction at 0, 2, 6, and 8 days (Table 5 and Figures 5 and 6a). There were no noticeable differences between the groups at the initial time. Following that, it was found that the wound closure capability of unwashed and washed cotton dressings that underwent different treatments was much greater than that of the untreated cotton dressings (the control group) (Table 5). On day 2, wounds treated with unwashed FE and FE/CA dressings demonstrated a significant improvement in contractility, lowering the wound area by 14% and 44%, respectively. Wounds treated with unwashed AgNPs and AgNPs/CA dressings contracted more effectively, lowering the wound area by 19.2% and 48%, respectively (Figures 5a and 6). The same is true for wounds treated with washed FE and FE/CA dressings, which reduced wound area by 12.8% and 40.2%, respectively, as well as wounds treated with washed AgNPs and AgNPs/CA dressings, which reducedwound area by 18.6% and 44.6%, respectively (Figures 5b and 6). This compares to a 0.9% decrease in wound area in the untreated dressings group and a 29.8% decrease in wound area in the Dermazin Cream dressings group. Wounds treated with Dermazin cream, on the other hand, were mostly healed (90.07%) on the eighth day following the incision, but wounds treated with unwashed AgNPs/CA and FE/CA dressings had a 71.1% and 39.3% reduction in wound area, respectively (Figure 5a). On the same day, washed dressings treated with AgNPs/CA and FE/CA showed wound area reductions of 68.6% and 38.5%, respectively (Figure 5b).

Cotton dressings treated with FE/CA and AgNPs/CA retain more healing potential even after washing because the CA binder in the finishing formation and the AgNPs interacted with the alcoholic groups of the cotton, as well as the physical adsorption of AgNPs on the fabric's surface, increasing their attachment to the cotton dressings. Besides its ability to enlarge the chemical reactivity and biocompatibility of AgNPs, CA is an eco-friendly cross-linking agent that creates intramolecular crosslinks between cotton cellulose chains by esterification processes⁶¹. This replaces the original hydrogen bonds of these chains and creates a stable three-dimensional (3D) network structure of cotton cellulose. Trapping AgNPs in these 3D matrices increases their stability and retention on the cotton dressing surface. As a result, the application of FE, AgNPs, and CA binder to cotton dressings is a promising approach for encouraging efficient wound contraction.

Table 5. The effect of dressings with different treatments on the wound contraction area of experimental rats

Groups	Wound area (cm)²
Groups	Zero time	2d	6d	8d
Unwashed fabrics
I	2.13+0.01	2.12+0.01*	1.86+0.04*	1.51+0.03*
II	2.25+0.01	1.58+0.01*	0.92+0.01*	0.21+0.01*
III	2.28+0.03	1.96+0.01*	1.56+ 0.1*	1.45+0.01*
IV	2.43+0.01	1.36+0.03*	1.07+0.01*	0.79+ 0.03*
V	2.24+0.03	1.81+0.03*	1.45+0.0*	1.36+0.03*
VI	2.46+0.05	1.28+0.02*	0.89+0.01*	0.71+ 0.01*
Washed fabrics
VII	2.19+0.04	1.91+0.01*	1.58+0.0*	1.41+0.02*
VIII	2.48+0.02	1.31+0.01*	1.08+0.02*	0.57+0.03*
IX	2.26+0.01	1.84+0.02*	1.48+0.01*	1.39+0.02*
X	2.42+0.5	1.34+0.01*	0.97+0.02*	0.76+0.01*

I= Untreated cotton dressings (control group); II= Cotton dressings treated with Dermazin (standard drug);Cotton dressings treated with EF, FE/CA, AgNPs, and AgNPs/CA are represented by the groups III-VI and VII-X before and after washing, respectively.Values are expressed as mean ± S.D of n = 6 animals in each group. * Significantly different from control at p< 0.05.

(A)

(B)

Figure 5. Effect of different dressing treatments on wound healing percentages (a) before and (b) after ten washing cycles. Groups I-X, as cited under Table 5.

CONCLUSIONS:

This study presents a green method for synthesizing silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) using hydroethanolic leaves extract from Ficus binnendijkii (FE) at different pHs and durations. The AgNPs and FE were applied to cotton fabrics under normal and washing conditions to create dressings that enhance wound healing. Quantitative analyses were performed to assess the total amounts of phenolic compounds, flavonoids, tannins, and alkaloids found in FE. The biosynthesized nanoparticles were characterized using UV-Vis spectroscopy, FTIR, TEM, and XRD. In vivo studies on male albino rats showed that the AgNPs-containing dressing improved wound healing. The most favorable conditions for AgNP synthesis were pH 11 and 30 minutes of incubation. After 8 days, cotton dressings treated with AgNPs, FE, and CAbinder showed significant efficacy in boosting wound healing in rats, outperforming dressings loaded with Dermazin cream. The findings of this study suggest that FE and FE-mediated synthesized AgNPs, in conjunction with CA, might be employed successfully as eco-friendly and cost-effective renewable sources to produce more efficient wound healing-based cotton dressings. The outcomes of this study might also encourage many researchers to do research on additional Ficus species as a tool for producing various nanoparticles that are useful in treating a variety of human ailments. Because the cotton dressings prepared in this study had no adverse effects on the skin of the test animals, they can be used safely in clinical studies on patient skin.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

The authors would like to thank the Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Helwan University, and the Pharmacognosy and Pharmacology Departments, National Research Centre, Cairo, Egypt, for their support.

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Received on 18.03.2024 Modified on 10.06.2024

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2024; 17(9):4427-4436.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2024.00684