INTRODUCTION:

Silver and its compounds have been used in antibacterial packaging and healing for many years^1,2. The ancient Greeks and Romans used silver vessels to preserve water, food, and wine to prevent corruption. Hippocrates used silverware to treat ulcers and heal wounds.

Silver nitrate was widely used in wound care and disinfection with tools. In 1852, the Sims were fitted with a vesicovaginal fistula due to the transport of sweet silver cords that reduced pollution. Antimicrobial resistance has become a global problem, especially since the 1980s, due to the overuse of antimicrobial drugs, and silver has resurfaced with the advent of nanotechnology in the early 21^stcentury^1-3.

Metal nanoparticles have many applications in various fields. Because the shape, size, and composition of metal nanoparticles are closely related to their physical, chemical, and optical properties, nanoscale materials have received wide-ranging applications from chemical to medical^4-8. Antibacterial and anticancer treatments^4-9, diagnostics and optoelectronics^10-12, water disinfection ¹³, and other clinical/pharmacological uses¹⁴have all seen efforts to investigate and exploit their attractive properties. Despite the attractive material properties and the cheap and abundant natural resources, the use of silver in nanomaterials is limited due to its durability, such as the concentration of oxidation in oxygen-containing liquids¹⁵. Nanomaterials (1–100nm materials) haveformed the interest of researchers in various fields, including biomedicine, catalysis, energy storage, and nerves, due to their longevity in a variety of specific physicochemical habitats compared to their many forms¹⁶.Nanomedicine, drug delivery and biomedical devices, cosmetics, electronics, the energy industry, and environmental protection have all been studied using inanimate NPs^17,18

Silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs or nanosilver) have piqued the interest of researchers from a variety of academic labs due to their new chemical, physical, and biological properties compared to their bulk form⁵. High thermal and electrical conductivity, surface increased Raman scattering, chemical stability, catalytic activity, and non-near optical behavior are just a few of the physical and chemical properties of AgNPs¹⁹.

There are several ways to produce silver nanoparticles, including physical, chemical, and biological processes. The physical and chemical processes of producing silver nanoparticles are dangerous and expensive, while biological methods are safe and easy to use. After production and before use for any purpose, silver nanoparticles must pass all standard features such as size, shape, size distribution, surface area, melting, mixing, toxicity, and biocompatibility. All of these parameters were tested using UV-Visible spectroscopy, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM)^20-26. The basic principles of silver nanoparticles, as well as their uses, production techniques, character parameters, accessible commercial formatsare included in this article.

Advantages of silver nanoparticles²⁷_:

· The synthesis of silver nanoparticles on a large scale is a possibility.

· Silver nanoparticles remain stable over time.

· Silver nanoparticles have the potential to be used to deliver controlled drug delivery.

· Silver nanoparticles can be freeze-dried and lyophilized for powder formulation.

Disadvantages of silver nanoparticles²⁷:

· Drug loading capacity had reduced.

· Water is present in the dispersion of silver nanoparticles,

· Resulting in a lower ability to load lipophobicmedicines.

METHODS OF PREPARATIONS:

Physical methods:

Physical methods are used to create silver nanoparticles by distributing a limited size using physical force. Physical methods can produce large amounts of silver nanoparticles in one step. Silver nanoparticle powder can also be obtained using these methods (Figure1)²⁸.

Evaporation-Condensation Method:

The supply of metal (silver-organic) is held in a vessel with a heat source in the furnace particle furnace in this process. The heat from the center is enough to evaporate non-silver.

Figure1: Physical Methods for the Preparation of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)

Removing the carrier gas leaves the silver nanoparticles behind. The higher the furnace temperature, the more saturated the silver nanoparticles are produced. However, this method takes longer to obtain a stable temperature²⁹.

Laser Ablation Method:

The metal/silver plate is spread over the liquid media and illuminated by a laser beam in the process. The laser beam is absorbed by the metal plate, which creates a hot plasma with very high silver particles. The liquid medium lowers the temperature and cools the environment, enabling the silver nanoparticles to thrive. The nature of the synthetic silver nanoparticles and the efficiency of extraction are influenced by several factors, including the wavelength of the laser impinging on the metal target, the duration of the laser pulses (in Femto states, pico, and nanoseconds), laser smoothness, duration of extraction, as well as an active fluid method, with or without surfactants³⁰. Both of these processes have the advantage of not using any chemical, reducing, or stabilizing; as a result, the silver nanoparticles produced by both methods do not contaminate and do not need to be refined before use. What’s worse is that they are energy-consuming and expensive³¹.

Chemical Methods:

Most silver nanoparticles are synthesized using these methods. These methods work by reducing the silver ions to silver atoms, then combining them to form oligomeric clusters, which then produce silver nanoparticles. Silver nitrate (AgNO₃), silver acetate, and silver chlorate are among the precursors used in these processes. Reducing agents such as ascorbate, borohydride, and hydroxyl as well as carboxyl group chemicals such as alcohol, aldehyde, and polysaccharides are introduced into these precursors, reducing the precursor ion of silver and creating a silver atom, following the construction of silver nanoparticles. The nature and properties of reducing agents have a significant impact on the evolving silver nanoparticles. Strong and moderate reductants are two types of reducing agents. Solid reductants, such as borohydrides, produce large, dispersed nanoparticles, while ascorbates and citrates form smaller, dispersed nanoparticles. Alternatively, the morphology (size and shape) of nanoparticles is determined by the distribution media used. Dispersion methods are a protective or solid solvent system that is absorbed over the particles to prevent bonding.^32,33.

Biological Methods:

Chemical methods use various chemical agents such as solvents (PVP, PMMA, PMAA, and PEG), as well as reducing agents (borohydrides, citrate, and ascorbates), to contaminate the final product (silver nanoparticles). Environmental mitigation agents are now being used to overcome these problems, and this approach refers to a biological or green method that is environmentally friendly, produces non-polluting products, and uses less energy. Biological microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and extracts are used as agents in the environment. The basic idea behind this process is that natural agents, such as flavonoids, fats, terpenoids, carbohydrates, enzymes, etc., donate electrons to reduce silver ions in silver atoms. This process proves to be a straightforward and effective method of complex chemical methods for obtaining silver nanoparticles. Bacteria of well-known antimicrobial agents produce both organic and inorganic, both internally intracellularly and outside cells.^34,35

Other Methods:

Photochemical Method:

The photochemical approach employs light, particularly UV light, to convert a colloidal silver nanoparticle solution into a stable formulation of various sizes and shapes (Figure2). A silver colloidal solution is used as a precursor in this approach.

Figure 2: Other Conventional Approaches for the Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)

In the presence of polymer stabilizers such as PVP, Poly (Methyl Methacrylate) PMMA, and PMAA, silver nitrate, silver perchlorate, and other silver salts are photochemically reduced to create silver nanoparticles.^36,38.

Electrochemical Method:

Silver nanoparticles are created using this process in a specific electrochemical cell that uses silver as an anode and platinum as a cathode. The silver anode is exposed to the external electric field, resulting in the growth of silver clusters, followed by the formation of silver nanoparticles embedded in the platinum cathode. This process takes place at room temperature, and the size of the silver nanoparticles can be controlled by changing the current density³⁸.

Microwave-Assisted Synthesis:

Unlike the traditional oil bath process, microwave heating is employed to produce silver nanoparticles in this method. Microwave heating is a promising technology currently because it has a faster reaction time, lower energy usage, and higher product yield, which prevents particle agglomeration. As a stabilizer, carboxymethyl cellulose sodium is used in this process. The nanoparticles created by this method have two-month stability without any visible changes. As a stabilizer, microwave-heated starch is employed, which also serves as a template. Inorganic salts are reduced to create nanoparticles using polyols such as polyethylene glycol and N-vinylpyrrolidone as reducing agents and stabilizers³⁸.

Characterizationof Metal Nanoparticles³⁹:

The influence of environmental circumstances on the characteristics of silver nanoparticles has already been discussed. Metal nanoparticles with controlled particle size and surface chemistry have a wide range of applications in biological and environmental domains. Aside from the productiontechniques, nanomaterials must be characterized to investigate differences in activity based on morphological variances. Analytical approaches can be used to investigate the effect of reaction parameters on biosynthesis and their impact on size and shape features.

UV- visible Spectroscopy Analysis:

The principal approach for confirming nanoparticle production is UV-visible spectroscopy. The principle of spectroscopy is based on light absorbed or scattered by metal nanoparticles in the ultraviolet and visible regions of the electromagnetic spectrum. Due to the activation of an electron on the metal surface, metal nanoparticles with unique optical characteristics display the surface plasmon resonance effect. UV-Vis spectroscopy was used to investigate how the excitation of metal ions varies depending on their size, shape, and concentration.

FTIR Analysis:

The fingerprint of the functional groups contained in organic and inorganic compounds is determined by the FTIR spectrum. The particles absorb electromagnetic energy in the infrared portion of the spectrum, which causes the subatomic molecules to vibrate, according to this spectrum. These vibrations are quantified at specific locations, and absorption occurs, which is denoted by a wave number. This wavenumber ranges between 4000 and 400 cm¹. The size of the nanoparticle is determined by the strength of the peaks observed in the FT-IR spectrum, and the shape of the nanoparticle is determined by the position of the band.

Transmission Electron Microscopy Analysis:

The morphology of metal nanoparticles is studied using transmission electron microscopy, a high-resolution method. It operates on the idea that an electron beam is transmitted via the surface of metal nanoparticles, and the interaction of the transmitted electrons results in a picture. The size, shape, and distribution of the particles are all determined through this examination.

Atomic Force Microscopy:

Atomic force microscopy determines not only the size, structure, and composition of nanoparticles but also their dispersion and composition. AFM allows for real-time interaction of nanoparticles with layers of lipid biology, which is currently not possible using electron microscopy. Measurement with atomic energy microscopes does not require a holding or oxide-free environment. AFM also has the advantage of not causing damage to the native environment and measuring small nanometer scales in liquid water. The main disadvantage is that the size of the sample is extremely limited due to the size of the cantilever. In sample analysis, performance mode (no touch or contact) is important^40,41.

Scanning Electron Microscopy Analysis:

SEM is a common technique for investigating sample morphology and surface topology. Secondary electrons, backscattered electrons, and Auger electrons are all produced when an electron beam collides with a material. The surface geometry of the sample and its composition influence the emission of such electrons. These collections of electrons detected in the SEM, as well as the signal generated, provide information about the material. Surface imaging was carried out with a resolution of roughly 1 nm, which is dependent on the electron probe and its contact with the object. It was successfully used for scanning nanoparticles due to its high-resolution capability.

Zeta Potential Analysis:

A zeta potential method is a useful tool for assessing the stability and aggregation of nanoparticles in dispersed conditions. The electrostatic interaction between the surface charges of the nanoparticle and the oppositely charged ions present in the solution is the subject of the study. This results in a double layer of ions, with the electric potential at the layer's boundary known as the zeta potential. The readings are measured between +100 and –100 millivolts. In the range of more than +25mV or less than - 25mV, nanoparticles with high degrees of stability were detected.

Applications of Silver Nanoparticles:

AgNPs are widely employed in the healthcare industry, food storage, textile industry, and a variety of natural applications such as antibacterial agents. It is noteworthy that, despite decades of use, the evidence regarding silver poisoning is still unclear. A variety of certified agencies, including the US FDA, US EPA, and Japan SIAA, as well as Korea, have approvedAgNPs-basedproducts⁴².

Figure3: Various Applications of Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs)

AgNPs are also used for nanoscale sensors because of their electrochemical properties, which allow shorter reaction times and lower detection limits. cleansing. AgNPs have been recommended for use in a wide range of textiles by the textile industry. With this, silver nanocomposite fibers containing AgNPs embedded in the fabric have been developed⁴³. Cotton fibers containing AgNPs can fight germs in the presence of E. coli. For example, the strong catalytic activity of the color rendering of monochromatic black T dye in the presence of sodium borohydride (from 19.74% to 86.05 %) and the light source before the NPS differs from that of most objects (from 41.96% to 80.11%⁴⁴. Metallic NPs' optical structures are primarily determined by surface plasmon resonance, which is the combined oscillation of free electrons within metallic NPs⁴⁵. plasmon resonant and linear width AgNPs are used in agriculture to increase crop yields, improve plant nutrition, and protect plants from the disease⁴⁶. Figure3 shows the numerous applications of silver nanoparticles.

The author reported using AgNPs in catalysis to improve the NaBH₄ reduction rate in reducing azo dye. AgNPs are widely used in nanomedicine, which includes diagnostics, biomedicines, nanoelectronics, and molecular imaging, due to the superiority of their surface electric field. Because the high SPR (Surface Plasmon Resonance) levels of the AgNPs increase with the intensity of the magnetic field, they act as nanoantennas. Because of certain vibratory mechanisms, AgNPs act as sensors with Raman spectroscopy to identify any molecule. AgNPs are used in food supplementation to prevent microbiological diseases due to their antimicrobial properties. AgNPs nanosensors are used to analyze impurities, colors, taste, drinking water, and clinical diagnoses⁴⁷.

Agriculture also benefited from the implementation of 189 AgNPs. Plant production can be enhanced by contacting intelligent plant-based nanotechnology sensors with an active electronic device, where the sensors improve and facilitate water and agrochemical supply, as well as enable high-throughput plant chemical phenotyping. AgNPs are used in plant nutrition and disease prevention, while AgNPs can be given to plants with pesticides to increase crop yields in agriculture⁴⁸. AgNPs are widely employed as antifungal, antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antiviral medicinal agents. AgNPs can be employed in drug delivery to lower drug doses, increase specificity, and reduce toxicity due to their antibacterial properties⁴⁹.

CONCLUSION:

Because of their unusual physical, chemical, optical, electrical, and catalytic capabilities, AgNPs have been investigated swiftly and intensively for decades. These traits are intimately linked to AgNPs characteristics, particularly size and form. Physical, chemical, and biological approaches can all be used to make AgNPs with distinct properties. In the relevant portions of this review, we individually introduce the production technique and characterization parameters of silver nanoparticles. Silver nanoparticles have sparked a lot of attention due to their extraordinary role in cancer therapy. Surface morphology, surface chemistry, size, size distribution, cell type, cell aggregation, and the reducing agent employed for nanoparticle manufacturing all influence the biological activity of silver nanoparticles. The mode of action concerningthe pharmacokinetics of silver nanoparticles was helpful to understand the absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion process. Silver nanoparticles might be made using a variety of approaches, including physical, chemical, and biological methods. Physical and chemical methods for producing silver nanoparticles are costly and difficult to apply, but biological methods are simpler and safer.Various applications in human cancer therapy, photoimaging, cosmetics, and other medicinal purposes, catalysis, antibacterial, Photothermal therapy, and other food packaging or safety uses were investigated.This interesting result motivates us to look into other potential uses for silvernanoparticles in nanomedicine and drug delivery system.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

She/He author wishes to acknowledge the Department of Pharmaceutics, Laureate Institute of Pharmacy, Jawalamukhi, Himachal Pradesh (176031), for providing necessary facilities in the preparation of this review article.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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Received on 23.04.2022 Modified on 18.07.2022

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2023; 16(6):2819-2824.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2023.00464