INTRODUCTION:

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most prevalent form of dementia associated with aging, affecting millions of people worldwide. After the successive cleavage of the amyloid precursor protein by β- and γ- secretases respectively, amyloid peptide is produced and released. Neural loss is associated with disease-initiating pathogenic pathways such as apoptosis, dysregulation of ion homeostasis, molecular damage, cell cycle disruption, and metabolic alterations.

There are drugs for AD and Parkinson's disease, but these drugs treat the symptoms, not the cause. Because of this, it is very important to find treatments that can stop the spread of these diseases¹.

The use of dietary or therapeutic supplements was encouraged, especially during the disease attack, due to an imbalance between ROS and the body's natural capacity for antioxidant defense. It has been acknowledged that antioxidants from plants, such as vitamin C, vitamin E, carotenes, phenolic acids, etc., may lower the risk of disease². These molecules have a reputation for acting as antioxidants due to both their stable radical intermediate status and their capacity to donate electrons or hydrogen³. The antioxidant properties of medicinal plants may help to explain how they protect against disease. It has been demonstrated that morbidity and mortality from degenerative diseases are negatively correlated with natural antioxidant intake⁴.

Numerous marine species must adapt to harsh environments and dwell in intricate habitats in order to survive. Additionally, in order to live in exacting environments, these organisms synthesis a wide range of secondary (biologically active) metabolites that are unique to them⁵. Seaweeds are also important providers of macronutrients. Some of the most common species are ulva, also called sea lettuce, which grows in large numbers in coastal water communities all over the world. The common genus Ulva has been a subject of quite a few physiological investigations on marine macro algae. The nutritional benefit of U. lactuca as a food source for ruminants and goats is well established. It is known that location and local environmental conditions have a big effect on how biochemically marine seaweeds are made⁶. However, experts have hypothesized that the absence of photodynamic damage in these marine algae's structural components, despite exposure to strong light and a lot of oxygen, suggests that their cells also have antioxidant defense systems⁷.

The objective of the present study was to ascertain the total extract of U. lactuca L.'s invitro antioxidant and Neuroprotective properties.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

The seaweed U. lactuca L., also called "sea lettuce," was bought from the RK Algae Project centre in Mandapam, Tamil Nadu, and India. The Botanical Survey of India in Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, was able to identify and verify it.

Ethanolic extract preparation:

The seaweed washed well and dried in the shade for seven days. The dried algae were ground into a fine powder. 1000ml of water was mixed with 50g of air-dried seaweed powder and kept at 60⁰C for 3 hours. After the suspension was taken out, the mixture was cooled to room temperature and put through cheesecloth to get rid of the suspension. Centrifugation at 10,000rpm for 20minutes at 10⁰C removed the solids from the filtrate⁸. Extract juice was the result of a second round of filtering the supernatant with whatman filter paper to remove contaminants. For the ulvan precipitation, three volumes of ethanol at 96 percent w/w were added to one volume of extract juice. An alcohol precipitate was obtained by centrifuging the mixture at 5000rpm for 20 minutes at 10⁰C. After centrifuging the alcohol precipitate at 5000 rpm for 10minutes at 10⁰C, it was washed three times with 50%, 75%, and 100% ethanol⁹. Finally, it was finely powdered using a centrifugal mill after being dried in oven at 40 ⁰C to a consistent weight below is the formula used to get the yield percentage:

% Yield = (W1 ×100)/W2 Equation 1

Where W1-weight of extract after evaporation and W2 -dry weight of the sample

In vitro antioxidant activity:

FRAP assay:

Using the Oyaizu method, the ferrous reducing antioxidant Potential (FRAP) of the samples was determined. Fe2+ can be detected by observing the production of Perl's Prussian blue at 700nm. The test containers were filled with 0.25mL of variously concentrated samples/standard solutions (12.5-150 g/mL), 0.625mL of 0.2M potassium buffer, and 0.625 mL of 1% potassium ferricyanide, [K3Fe (CN)6] solution.^{To complete the reaction, the mixtures
were incubated at 500C for 20 minutes. The test containers were then filled
with 0.625% of a 10% solution of trichloroacetic acid (TCA).} After centrifuging the entire mixture for 10minutes at 3000rpm, 1.8mL of the supernatant was removed and combined with 1.8mL of distilled water and 0.36mL of a 0.1% ferric chloride (FeCl₃) solution.^{The absorbance of the solution
at 700 nm was measured
and compared to a blank using}a spectrophotometer. The same solution combination was used to make a typical blank solution, which was incubated under the same conditions but without any plant extracts or standards. At 700nm, the blank solution's absorbance was determined. The increased absorbance of the reaction mixture indicates its increased reducing power^10-13.

ABTS scavenging assay:

Metmyoglobin and hydrogen peroxide combine to form a ferryl myoglobin radical, which enables the antioxidant assay to be successful. This radical oxidizes ABTS (2,2-azino-bis (3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) to produce ABTS⁺, which is a radical cation. A green soluble chromogen that can be measured at 734nm using spectrophotometry¹⁴. The reaction between 7 mM ABTS in water and 2.45mM potassium persulfate (1:1) produced the ABTS⁺ cation radical, which was then stored for 12 to 16hours at room temperature and in the dark. The ABTS⁺ solution was then diluted with methanol until the absorbance at 734 nm reached 0.700. After mixing 3,995ml of diluted ABTS+ solution and 5L of algal extract for the first time, the absorbance was measured 30minutes later. In each test, a solvent blank that worked well was used^15-17. At least three times each measurement was taken. The following formula was used to figure out how much antioxidant activity of the sample:

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒 − 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑙ank

% Antioxidant activity = 100 − ------------------------- 100

𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑙−𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑏𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑙𝑎𝑛𝑘

Equation 2

The standard was Quercetin, and the blank was Methanol. A control sample was made with the same amount of liquid but no extract.

Acetylcholinesterase inhibition:

To determine the extent to which acetylcholinesterase enzyme inhibition had taken place, we monitored the quantity of thiocholine formed during the hydroxylation of acetylthiocholine. It was determined by the continuous reaction of thiol with DTNB¹⁸. Using Ellman's colorimetric approach, the inhibition of acetylcholinesterase enzyme activity was identified. The blank cuvette used to test for non-enzymatic acetylcholine hydrolysis had 500μL of 3mM DTNB (in 0.1M potassium phosphate pH 8), 100μL of 15 mMAChI (in water), 275μL of 0.1M potassium phosphate pH 8, and 100μL of total Ulva lactuca extract at the different doses tested (31.25, 62.5, 125, 250, 500ug/ml), AChE solution 0.16 U/mL was used in place of the 25μL of buffer in the reaction cuvette. The resultant solutions were put in a spectrophotometer. The hydrolysis of acetylcholine results in the formation of thiocholine, which interacts quickly with DTNB to produce a yellow molecule. Every minute, the absorbance was recorded while the process was being watched over for five minutes at 405 nm. Calculations were made for reaction velocities^19-21. As opposed to utilizing an inhibitor in the experiment, buffer solution was used, and the percentage of velocities was used to compute the enzyme activity (Ulva lactuca extracts). The tests were carried out three times.

Cell Culture:

The National Centre for Cell Science was where the human Neuroblastoma cell line SH-SY5Y was bought (NCCS, Pune, India). They can make proteins and protein isoforms that are only found in humans and aren't found in mouse primary neural cell culture. The SH-SY5Y Neuroblastoma cell line was chosen for this study because it is often used in experimental neurological studies of neuronal development, metabolism, and function related to neurodegeneration, neurotoxicity, neuronal adaptation mechanisms, and neuroprotection. These cells reflect neuronal biochemical and functional attributes. It can also adequately multiply in a long period of time without becoming affected. Ham's F-12 was supplemented with penicillin (100 U/ml), streptomycin (100 g/ml), and heat-inactivated neonatal bovine serum (2%). Cultures were sown into flasks with additional media and kept at 37 ⁰C in humidified, 5% CO2 air. Stock cultures underwent a 1:4 passage twice each week²².

MTT assay:

After being trypsinized, the sub cultured SH-SY5Y cells are seeded at a density of 1X104 cells per well into 96- ^{well plates. These seeded plates were
cultivated and incubated for 24hours at 370C with 5% CO}2 ^{until 70%}confluence. To give varied concentrations of (6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, 100g/ml), the extracts were serially diluted in full culture media before being given to the cells in a final volume of 100ml. The control well included both the cells and the conditioned medium, while the blank well was loaded with conditioned medium only. Each medium in the well was swapped with 10ml of MTT (10mg/ml) after 72hours of incubation, and then each well was incubated again for 4 hours. Following incubation, the MTT media was withdrawn from each well, and 100ml of DMSO was then added to dissolve the violet formazan crystals that had formed inside the metabolically active cells. The quantity of viable cells directly relates to this formazan synthesis. After 20 minutes of shacking, a microplate reader was used to measure the optical density at 570nm. Wells devoid of cells were taken as "blanks" and excluded from each sample as background. In terms of the control value, cell viability was given as a percentage. The SH-SY5Y hippocampus neurons were seeded in 96-well tissue culture plates, and cell viability was optimized for all of the chosen algal extract at concentrations of 6.25, 12.5, 25, 50, and 100g/ml with six repetitions²³.

BPA induced neurotoxicity in SH-SY 5Y cell lines:

The dose of bisphenol A was optimized to cause toxicity in SH-SY5Y cell lines in order to investigate the Neuroprotective efficacy of algal extract. MTT assay dose optimization was also carried out in six duplicates. Dose levels of 2.5, 5, 10, and 20M were selected for the study²⁴.

Cell viability studies:

By using the MTT Assay in SH-SY5Y cells, the Neuroprotective impact of the chosen Ulva lactuca algal extracts on BPA-induced neurotoxicity was also evaluated. A 10mM concentration of BPA was reconstituted in DMSO. BPA was directly added to the culture medium during the experiment to reach a final concentration of 20M. To evaluate the potential protective benefits, three concentrations of each algal extract that demonstrated low toxicity (based on the results of the experiments above) were chosen. The cells were plated as previously described, pre- treated for two hours with algae extracts, then added BPA, and incubated for 72hours. The MTT assay technique, which was previously reported, was used to determine the vitality of the cells. The percentage of the control value was used to measure cell viability²⁴.

Caspase 3 expression:

To cause neuron inflammation, the cells were crushed and put in 100µl of culture medium with 200µM Bisphenol A for 2hours. The cells were then treated with the right amount of experimental compounds, except for the control cells, in 2ml of culture medium and left to grow for 24hours. At the end of the treatment, take the medium out of each well and wash them with PBS. Take out the PBS, add 300μl of the trypsin-EDTA solution, and let the mixture sit at 37°C for 3–4 minutes. The mixture was put on ice for 20 minutes after 500μl of binding buffer with FITC–annexin V was added. The cells were then set and marked with anti-cleaved caspase 3 antibodies, as described above. A flow cytometer was used to look at the cells²⁵.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Invitro antioxidant studies:

Ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) study:

The FRAP Study by ELISA reader suggesting us that given Test Compounds viz., TEUL showing effective Ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) potency compared to the Standard drug, Quercetin used for the study. The test compounds displayed the significant antioxidant capacity in dose dependent manner represented in figure 1.

ABTS Radical Scavenging ability:

The ability to scavenge ABTS⁺ radicals is the primary approach for determining antioxidant capacity. The absorbance maximum of ABTS, a protonated radical, occurs at 734nm and decreases with increasing scavenging capacity. The results from the ABTS+ radical scavenging ability was found to be high in TEUL (15µg/ml) and then in Quercetin (6.29µg/ml). TEUL exhibited satisfactory ABTS^•+ Decolourization potential property with the considerable high EC50 value compared to the Standard Drug, Quercetin which exhibited 6.29µg/ml used in the study. Both TEUL and Quercetin displayed the dose-dependent antioxidant activity depicted in Figure 2.

Figure No 1: Ferric reducing antioxidant potential (FRAP) study

Figure No 2: ABTS radical scavenging ability

In vitro anticholinesterase activity:

A crucial enzyme in the parasympathetic nervous system is acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Inhibitors of AChE, which improve cholinergic transmission with modest and transient pharmacological and therapeutic benefits, are the main component of treatments intended to restore the cholinergic deficit in AD. According to several studies, cholinesterase inhibitors can provide a variety of therapeutic goals, including antioxidant activity, the modification of APP processing, and the prevention of the development of β-amyloid plaques. The results of the AChE inhibitory activities of the tested algae extracts as well as the positive control showed the positive results represented in figure 3.

Figure No 3: Invitro anticholinesterase activity

MTT assay:

Exposure of SH-SY5Y cells to BPA (200 M) reduced cell viability by approximately 45.5% (55.65% of viable cells). However, when BPA was incubated with seaweeds (6.25, 12.5, 5.25, 50, and 100µg/ml), the 100µg/ml concentration of Ulva lactuca's total extract was able to completely neutralize the toxicity induced by BPA after 24hours of incubation.

Caspase 3 activity:

In order to determine whether BPA-induced cell death is mediated by apoptosis, it was decided to examine Caspase-3 activity, a crucial biomarker for this process. Caspase-3 activity increased significantly when SH-SY5Y cells were treated with 200μM BPA (79.29% of cells) versus vehicle (0.33%). In addition, when cells were incubated with BPA and TEUL (100µg/ml), it was possible to detect a decrease in Caspase-3 activity compared to BPA (Figure 4). The extract of Ulva lactuca completely inhibited BPA's ability to stimulate Caspase-3.

Figure No 4: Study of Caspase-3 Expression in SH-Sy5Y Cells

CONCLUSION:

For the purpose of pharmacological use in the treatment of AD, there is a rising interest in bioactive substances produced from natural sources. The Neuroprotective treatment strategy, which focuses on preventing A-induced neurotoxicity and oxidative damage, is one of the several approaches being studied. In this investigation, we found that the TEUL strongly protected SH-SY5Y cells against BPA-induced toxicity while also suppressing AChE activity. Several investigations have shown that TEUL may be Neuroprotective through mediating antioxidant ^{activities, which is compatible with
the protective effect against BPA. The reported IC}50 ^{value of 125
and 250}µg/ml for the inhibition of AChE activity by polysaccharides is consistent with the effects of TEUL, which were measured to be 31.25µg/ml Thus, TEUL and its components may have therapeutic promise in Alzheimer's disease and senile dementia due to its cholinesterase-inhibiting capability, antioxidant capacity, and Neuroprotective efficacy against bisphenol A. We found that Ulva lactuca (UL) has been traditionally used as a ionotropic to combat cognitive loss with age, and our findings lend credence to this application. Nevertheless, further in-depth animal research is required to optimize therapeutic dosages, identify the most effective therapeutic chemicals that can penetrate the blood-brain barrier, and determine the optimal period of UL treatments designed to achieve the desired therapeutic effects.

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

Nil.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS:

Authors thankfully acknowledge the RK Algae Project centre, Mandapam, Tamil Nadu, India for providing seaweed U. lactuca L as procured sample. The authors are also thankful to Management, Faculty of Pharmacy, Sri Ramachandra Institute of Higher Education and Research, Porur, Chennai for providing the entire necessary facilities and infrastructure.

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Received on 09.03.2023 Modified on 18.07.2023

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2023; 16(12):5948-5953.

DOI: 10.52711/0974-360X.2023.00965