A Synthesis and Review of Ethnomedicinal Uses, Phytochemistry and Biological Activities of Paropsia brazzeana Baill. (Passifloraceae)

 

Alfred Maroyi

Department of Botany, University of Fort Hare, Private Bag X1314, Alice 5700, South Africa.

 

ABSTRACT:

Paropsia brazzeana is a shrub used traditionally to treat various human diseases and ailments. Paropsia brazzeana naturally occurs from Cameroon and the Central African Republic south to Angola, the Caprivi strip of Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe. The aim of this review was to provide an overview and critically analyze the ethnomedical uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of P. brazzeana. The results of the current study are based on literature survey conducted using various search engines such as Elsevier, Pubmed, Google scholar, Springer, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis, and pre-electronic sources such as books, book chapters, scientific journals and other grey literature. The fruit, leaf, leaf sap, root, root bark and stem bark decoction or infusion of P. brazzeana are mainly used as charm and rituals, and traditional medicine for gastro-intestinal infections, gonorrhoea, malaria and toothache. Chemical constituents identified from P. brazzeana include alkaloids, hydrocyanic acid, polyphenol, proanthocyanidins, reducing sugars, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenes. The species possesses biological activities such as antiamoebic, antibacterial and antispasmodic activities. Paropsia brazzeana is a valuable medicinal plant species and future research should focus on animal experiments aimed at assessing toxicity and clinical efficacy of species extracts.

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Paropsia brazzeana Baill. (Figure 1) is a multi-stemmed shrub belonging to the Passifloraceae or passion flower family. The Passifloraceae family contains 17 genera and about 750 species with pantropical distribution with a few temperate species in North and South America, southern China and New Zealand.^1-12 Among the genera of the family Passifloraceae is the genus Paropsia Noronha ex Thouars consisting of approximately 12 species, with 11 of these recorded in tropical Africa and Madagascar and one in Malaysia.^5,13,14

 

Some species of Passifloraceae family such as Adenia lobata (Jacq.) Engl.,¹⁵ Passiflora actinia Hook.,^16-18 P. alata Curtis,^19-23, P. edulis Sims,^16,20,24-27 P. foetida       L.,^28-48 P. ligularis Juss.⁴⁹ and Turnera subulata Sm.^50,51 are used as traditional medicines against heart problems, high blood pressure, inflammation, kidney problems, reproductive problems, respiratory infections, skin diseases and ulcers. Several researchers in the past placed the genus Paropsia in the Flacourtiaceae family.¹⁴ But floral characteristics, stem anatomical and palynological micromorphological results supported placing of the genus Paropsia in Passifloraceae instead of Flacourtiaceae family.^14,52 The genus Paropsia consists of shrubs and trees characterised by leaves with short petioles, small stipules, solitary and axillary flowers.^5,13,14 The genus name Paropsia is named after “Paropsis”, a side-dish used by Xenophon.⁵³ The species name brazzeana is in honour of Italian-born Frenchman explorer and plant collector, Jacques Camille Savorgnan de Brazza (1859-1888) who collected the type specimen of the species in Congo-Brazzaville when he travelled together with his elder brother, Pierre Paul François Camille Savorgnan de Brazza (1852-1905).⁵⁴ Synomyms of P. brazzeana include P. argutidens Sleumer, P. reticulata Engl., P. reticulata Engl. var. ovalifolia Engl. and P. reticulata Engl. var. proschii Briq.^54,55

 

Figure 1: Paropsia brazzeana A: branch showing flowers and B: branch showing fruits (photos: B Wursten)

 

Paropsia brazzeana is a shrub growing from a rhizome reaching a height of four metres.^56,57 Leaves of P. brazzeana are simple, alternate with short petioles and brownish hairs with prominent veins. The leaves of P. brazzeana are elliptic to oblong in shape, leaf margins have sharp teeth, each tipped with a small, dark gland, base broadly cuneate to rounded, apex acute to acuminate. Paropsia brazzeana has bisexual, white flowers and scented flowers. The fruit of P. brazzeana is a globose to ovoid capsule with brown ovoid seeds and surrounded by orange jelly. Paropsia brazzeana has been recorded in Angola, Botswana, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Congo Brazzaville, the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC), Namibia, Zambia and Zimbabwe.^55,58-60 Paropsia brazzeana has been recorded in savannah, secondary forest, woodland, forests and thickets on Kalahari sands or clay soils at an altitude ranging from 850 m to 1600 m above sea level.^55,57 The leaves, petioles and twigs of P. brazzeana are browsed by livestock and game in Zimbabwe.⁶¹. The roots of P. brazzeana are traded in informal herbal medicine markets in Zambia as sources of traditional medicines.⁶² Paropsia brazzeana is listed as an important medicinal species in tropical Africa and the general characteristics of the species are outlined in the monograph “plant resources of tropical Africa 11: medicinal plants 1”.⁶³ A species, P. grewoides Welw. ex Mast. closely related to P. brazzeana is used as traditional medicine in Gabon with leaves used against fever and malaria.⁶⁴ Previous research^65-74 on traditional medicines showed that medicinal plants are an important aspect of the daily lives of many people in developing world. Therefore, the aim of this review is to provide a comprehensive appraisal of the ethnomedicinal uses, phytochemistry and biological activities of P. brazzeana.

 

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

An extensive literature survey related to P. brazzeana was conducted using various search engines such as Elsevier, Pubmed, Google scholar, Springer, Science Direct, Taylor and Francis, and pre-electronic sources such as books, book chapters, scientific journals and other grey literature. The literature search was conducted using keywords such as “Paropsia brazzeana”, “medicinal uses of Paropsia brazzeana”, “phytochemicals of Paropsia brazzeana”, “biological activities of Paropsia brazzeana”, “ethnobotany of Paropsia brazzeana”, and various other synonyms of the plant species.

 

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION:

Medicinal uses of Paropsia brazzeana:

The fruit, leaf, leaf sap, root, root bark and stem bark decoction or infusion of P. brazzeana are mainly used as charm and rituals, and traditional medicine for gastro-intestinal infections, gonorrhoea, malaria and toothache (Table 1; Figure 2). Other medicinal applications of the fruit, leaf, leaf sap, root, root bark and stem bark decoction or infusion of P. brazzeana include backache, headache, infertility in women, inflammation, menstrual problems, nose infections, pain, respiratory diseases, rheumatism and scoliosis.^75-77

 

Table 1: Medicinal uses of Paropsia brazzeana

Medicinal use	Part used	Country	Reference
Backache	Leaf infusion taken orally	Angola	[77]
Charm and rituals	Root powder applied topically	Angola and DRC	[77,78]
Gastro-intestinal problems (Amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea and stomach pains)	Leaf, root and root bark decoction taken orally	Angola and DRC	[76,77,79,80]
Gonorrhoea	Root decoction taken orally	Zimbabwe	[76,80,81]
Headache	Fruit infusion taken orally	Zimbabwe	[76]
Infertility in women	Leaf decoction taken orally	Angola	[77]
Inflammation	Root maceration applied topically	Angola	[77]
Malaria	Stem bark decoction taken orally	DRC	[82]
Menstrual problems	Leaf decoction taken orally	Angola	[77]
Nose infections	Fruit infusion applied topically	Zimbabwe	[76]
Pain	Leaf maceration applied topically	Angola	[77]
Respiratory diseases	Root decoction taken orally	DRC	[75]
Rheumatism	Leaf sap applied topically	Congo Brazzaville	[76]
Scoliosis	Leaf infusion taken orally	Angola	[77]
Toothache	Root infusion applied topically	Zimbabwe	[76,80,81]

 

 

Figure 1: Medicinal uses of Paropsia brazzeana based on literature records

 

Phytochemistry of Paropsia brazzeana:

A variety of chemical compounds have been isolated and identified from P. brazzeana (Table 2). These phytochemical compounds identified from the leaves, petioles, root bark and twigs of P. brazzeana include alkaloids, hydrocyanic acid, polyphenol, proanthocyanidins, reducing sugars, saponins, steroids, tannins and terpenes.^61,79,83,84 Some of these phytochemical compounds could be responsible for biological activities associated with the species.

 

Table 2: Phytochemical compounds isolated from Paropsia brazzeana

Phytochemical compound	Value	Plant part	Ref.
Acid detergent fibre (g/kg dry matter)	443.0	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Acid detergent lignin (g/kg dry matter)	144.0	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Alkaloids	-	Root bark	[83]
Ash (g/kg dry matter)	57.0	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Crude protein (g/kg dry matter)	131.0	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Hydrocyanic acid	-	Leaves	[76]
Insoluble proanthocyanidins (mm/g dry matter)	336.0	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Neutral acid detergent fibre (g/kg dry matter)	570.0	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Polyphenol	-	Root bark	[83]
Proanthocyanidins	-	Root bark	[84]
Protein precipitating polyphenolics (mm/g dry matter)	5.3	Leaves, petioles and twigs	[61]
Reducing sugars	-	Root bark	[84]
Saponins	-	Root bark	[79,83,84]
Steroids	-	Root bark	[79,84]
Tannins	-	Root bark	[79,84]
Terpenes	-	Root bark	[79,84]

 

Biological activities of Paropsia brazzeana:

Pharmacological research revealed that different extracts of P. brazzeana and compounds isolated from the species have various biological activities such as antiamoebic, antibacterial and antispasmodic activities.

 

Antiamoebic activities:

Tona et al.⁷⁹ and Tona et al.⁸⁵ evaluated the antiamoebic activities of the crude extracts of P. brazzeana root bark against Entamoeba histolytica using in vitro antiamoebic assay with metronidazole as a positive control. The extract exhibited strong activities against the tested pathogen with minimum amoebicidal concentration (MAC) value of ≤7.8 μg/ml in comparison to MIC value of 2.5 μg/ml exhibited by the positive control.^79,85 Tona et al.⁸³ evaluated the antiamoebic activities of the crude extract, polyphenolic, saponin and alkaloid fractions of P. brazzeana root bark against Entamoeba histolytica using in vitro antiamoebic assay with metronidazole as a positive control. The crude extract, polyphenolic and saponin fractions exhibited activities against the tested pathogen with MAC values ranging from 7.3 μg/ml to >50.0 μg/ml.⁸³ Cimanga et al.⁸⁴ evaluated the antiamoebic activities of the crude extracts and fractions of P. brazzeana root bark against Entamoeba histolytica using in vitro antiamoebic assay with metronidazole as a positive control. The extracts exhibited activities against the tested pathogen with MAC value ranging from 7.8 μg/ml to 125.0 μg/ml and half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC₅₀) values ranging from 4.6 μg/ml to 65.3 μg/ml.⁸⁴ These findings could be used to corroborate traditional uses of the root bark of P. brazzeana as traditional medicine against amoebic dysentery in DRC.^76,80

 

Antibacterial activities:

Tona et al.⁸⁵ evaluated the antibacterial activities of the crude aqueous extracts of P. brazzeana root bark against Citrobacter diversus, Escherichia coli, Escherichia paracoli, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella enteritidis, Shigella flexneri and Staphylococcus aureus using microdilution method with chloramphenicol and tetracycline hydrochloride as positive controls. The extract exhibited activities against tested pathogens with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values ranging from 31.3 7.8 μg/ml to 62.5 μg/ml.⁸⁵ These findings appear to support the traditional uses of the leaf, root and root bark decoctions of P. brazzeana against gastro-intestinal infections such as amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea and stomach pains, gonorrhoea and toothache.^76,77,79-81

 

Antispasmodic activities:

Tona et al.⁸⁵ evaluated the antispasmodic activities of the crude aqueous extracts of P. brazzeana root bark on segments of the guinea pig ileum precontracted with KCl and acetylcholine (ACh) with atropine sulfate and papaverine hydrochloride as positive controls. The extracts exhibited activities with 80.8% and 71.6% inhibition of ACh-induced contractions and KCl-induced contractions.⁸⁵ Cimanga et al.⁸⁶ evaluated the antispasmodic activities of the polyphenol and complex catechic tannin extracts of P. brazzeana root bark on segments of the guinea pig ileum precontracted with KCl and acetylcholine (ACh) with atropine sulfate and papaverine hydrochloride as positive controls. The extracts exhibited activities with 55.0 inhibition of ACh-induced KCl-induced contractions.⁸⁶

 

CONCLUSION:

This review showed that P. brazzeana is characterized by several phytochemicals and the species exhibited antiamoebic, antibacterial and antispasmodic activities. However, the majority of these biological activities lack of bioguided isolation strategies and mechanisms of action. Therefore, future research should focus on pharmacokinetics, mechanisms of action and structural activity relationships of phytochemical compounds of the species. Future research should also focus on animal experiments aimed at assessing toxicity and clinical efficacy of species extracts.

 

CONFLICT OF INTEREST:

The author declares no conflict of interest.

 

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Accepted on 04.04.2022           © RJPT All right reserved

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2022; 15(11):5331-5336.