A Review on Medicinal and Pharmaceutical importance of Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa)

 

Sen Amit, Ali Mohammad Irfan, Sharma Gaurav, Tomer Nalini,  Moin Sarmad*

School of Applied Sciences, Suresh Gyan Vihar University, Jaipur - 302017, Rajasthan, India.

 

ABSTRACT:

Quinoa is a pseudocereal, distributed and adapted in the different agroclimatic zone. Its grains have greater nutritive value than conventional cereals and it is promising worldwide for human intake and nourishment. It has unusual composition and excellent balance between oil, fat, and protein. The quinoa decrease the risk of various diseases therefore, it is a good example of functional food. The crop possesses genetic diversity and is rich in minerals, vitamins, and all essential amino acids. These nutritional and functional characteristics endow the crop with immunoregulator, anti-oxidant, anti-diabetic, anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer properties. It provides a gluten-free diet, which is beneficial for celiac patients. The Quinoa is considered for its protein content as it contains all essential amino acids with excellent in vitro digestibility. The present review is an attempt to collect and arrange the facts that establish quinoa as a protein crop.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd. 2n = 4x =36) is a South American seed producing dicotyledonous crop plant which belongs to the Amaranthaceae (Chenopodeaceae) family. It is an annual plant with green to pale yellow broad leaves, flowers with no petals and achene fruits, 1-2m tall with deep penetrating roots which can be cultivated from sea level upto the altitude of 3800m¹.

 

In the series of domestication, the crop is now considered for its exceptional protein content with all essential amino acids, lack of gluten, high mineral content and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stress, particularly salinization and drought². It is remarkably adaptable to different agro-ecological zone due to its broad genetic diversity³. Also, its production requires less land, resulting in lower greenhouse gas emission⁴.

 

Quinoa is also considered as a “functional food” due to its nutritional benefits which lead the crop to be used as flour, cookies, bread, biscuits, pasta, tortilla and pancake, salad⁵ along with to prevent malnutrition among kids⁶. The high-quality grains lead to various health -beneficial effects.  It is an immunoregulator^7,8,9 and have positive effects on cardiovascular, post-menopausal, gastrointestinal, obesity, diabetes and inflammatory activities. A rich source of vitamins, carotenoids and tocopherol in quinoa helps to increase its antioxidant potential and plays a role in other physiological process¹⁰. Betalanine, unsaturated fatty acid¹¹, saponin¹² also contribute for the above activities.

 

The crop comes into various seed colour which ranges from white to grey and black. Betalanine is responsible for seed colour. Darker quinoa seeds with high phenolic compounds and higher antioxidant activity as compared with white and gray seeds¹¹. Its gluten free properties are well tolerated by the celiac patient^13,14. The low glycemic index reduces the glucose metabolic disorders¹⁵. Flavanoids account for antioxidant and free radical scavenging activity¹⁶. Recently Hu et al.¹⁷ revealed a novel polysaccharide fraction of column chromatography exhibiting anticancer activity against human liver cancer SMMC 7721 and breast cancer MCF-7 cells. Considering the above benefits, present review is an attempt to give an overview of the facts and potential of quinoa in terms of its protein quality.

 

NUTRITIONAL CONSTITUENTS OF QUINOA SEED PROTEIN:

Quinoa is a complete food due to its high nutritional value (Table-1) where 90.6% part comes under the edible portion⁴. The protein, fat, ash and mineral contents are higher than the other cereals such as wheat, rice and maize^5,18,19. The crop contains higher level of lipids, proteins, dietary fibers, vitamins B1, B2, B6, E and minerals, especially calcium, phosphorus, iron and zinc as compared to cereals²⁰.

 

Table 1: Nutritional comparison of raw and cooked quinoa grains ^21,22

 

Quinoa contains about 3% of sugar molecules comprising mainly Maltose, D-Galactose, D-Ribose and low level of Glucose and Fructose. Starch is the major polysaccharide with approximate 52-69% amount²³. Amylose and amylopectin content varies 3 to 22% and 77.5% respectively^24,25,26. The total dietary fiber ranges from 7% to 9.7% with the amount of soluble fiber from 1.3% to 6.1%²³. Quinoa is also known as pseudo-oil crop. The fat content varies from 2.0 to 9.5% and is rich in linoleic acid, oleic acid and alpha- linolenic acid with  49%- 56.5%, 19.7% - 29.5% and 8.7% - 11.7% respectively. All three fatty acid make nearly 88% of total fatty acid amount of quinoa seed. Saturate palmitic acid covers 10% of total fatty acid^20,23,27. Tang et al.¹³ reported the 6:1 ratio of omega-6 and omega-3 in the total fat content of quinoa.^.

 

The ash content of crop is 3.4% and the total amount of calcium, iron, phosphorus, potassium and magnesium is reported approximately 874mg/kg, 948.5mg/kg, 2735mg/kg to 4543.3mg/kg, 9562.2mg/kg and 1901.5mg/kg respectively. The biologically available form of calcium, magnesium and potassium makes quinoa perfect for the balanced diet^28,29. The crop also has significant amount of vitamin content. It is considered as excellent source of vitamin E (37.49 to 59.82 µg/g). 100g of quinoa contain 0.4mg thiamine, 78.1mg folic acid, 1.4mg vitamin – C, 0.20mg vitamin B6, 0.61 pantothenic acid^30,13,29.

 

POTENTIAL OF QUINOA SEED PROTEIN:

Quinoa is known as a protein crop³¹ with estimated genome size of 1482 MB and 54438 protein coding genes³². Proteins are the structural constituents and act as catalysts for enzymatic reactions and energy sources for an organism³³. The protein content in quinoa ranges from 14.12g and 4.4g in uncooked and cooked grain respectively, which is superior among the different pseudocereals and cereals and is comparable with wheat²²(Figure-1). The total protein content reported in different literature are 12.9% to 16.5% as compared to 10.8% to 11.0% in barley, 11.6% in oat, 7.5% to 9.1% in rice, 10.2% to 13.4% in maize and equal to that of wheat (14.3% to 15.4%)⁷. However, different agronomic practices also affect the quantity of protein in the seed^34,35.

 

Fig. 1: Comparison of protein content (in g per 100 g) among different pseudocereal and cereal based on the USDA 2018 data

*major staple crop

 

AMINO ACIDS PRESENT IN QUINOA:

Amino acids are the most important aspect in quinoa as it contain essential amino acids (EAA) and non-essential amino acids as well (Table-2). 100 grams of quinoa contains nearly five-fold lysine, more than double isoleucine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, valine, and much larger amounts of leucine than 100 grams of wheat. Histidine, arginine, alanine and glycine along with tryptophan are also present in higher amounts. Most of them are essential amino acid (EAA) which is not de novo synthesized by our body. In addition, it also contains non-essential amino acids such as proline, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, cysteine, serine and tyrosine which are not present in wheat³⁶. The near infrared spectroscopy predicted the range of amino acid in-between 1.8 to 5.2 except glutamic acid, glycine, histidine and methionine³⁷.

 

Table 2: Amino acid composition of raw and cooked quinoa grain protein^21,22

 

The amino acid score of quinoa obtained by Watanabe is 90 and the recommended daily allowance (RDA) provided by quinoa is 8353 mg out 12880 mg²⁶ which is higher than beans, peas, wheat, maize, rice, potato and cauliflower⁴. Quinoa is highly concerned in terms of lysine and methionine which is absent in most of the cereals and legumes respectively^28,26. Lysine is found at the level of twice as high as in wheat and maize³⁸. Mota et. al.³⁹ reported 1013 mg of leucine followed by 755 mg of lysine and 199 mg (per 100 g) of methionine content in quinoa salta. Prakash and Pal⁴⁰ revealed the changes in amount of amino acid, i.e, there was increase in the relative amount of glutamic acid, glycine and arginine and decrease in aspartic acid, threonine, serine, proline, valine and lysine amount during seed maturity.

 

CHARACTERIZATION OF QUINOA PROTEIN:

Albumin and globulin are the major stored proteins with low concentration of prolamin which are varying in different varieties²³. These proteins are stored in the endosperm and embryo tissue ⁴¹ and can be observed at different pH range. In terms of structural stability, globulins are more stable than albumin. Secondary structure composition of globulin and albumin protein revealed that 20% of α-helix and 35% of β-sheet is present in globulin while 4% of α-helix, 50% of β-sheet in albumin-1 and 10% of α-helix, 37 % of β-sheet is present in albumin-2. Albumin-2 was also found to be similar of storage protein globulin⁴².

 

Chenopodin (protein 316 kDa) is another protein in quinoa which shows homology of amino acid composition with 11 S storage of rapeseed cruciferin i.e. subunit A is higher in glycine, methionine and histidine as compare to subunit B and lower in alanine, leucine and phenylalanine⁴³. Electrophoretic pattern and mass spectrophotometry provides different band size which is tabulated in Table-3.

 

Table 3: Different type of proteins and their band size.

 

Potential to adapt in different environment and stress condition leads to high polymorphism in seed storage protein (particularly albumin and globulin fraction) and changed expressions in response to salinity were confirmed by mass spectrophotometry ³⁶. Balzotti et al.⁴⁸ revealed the phylogenetic relationship based on amino acid alignment of 11 S seed storage protein in protein with homologous proteins from other plant species and found 74% sequence identity with amaranth. In another study, total 352 proteins were found using the shot gun proteomic approach where only four were identified in quinoa as it is a non-model plant and all the protein sequences are not available in protein sequence database.  Out of four proteins, three were seed storage protein and one of them was ribosomal protein⁴⁹.

 

PROTEIN DIGESTIBILITYL:

The palatability of quinoa seed has direct relationship with the saponin content present in the grain pericarp and responsible for its astringent taste. Flavonoid content of the seed is also responsible for bitterness and colour²⁷. The saponin content interfere with the digestion and absorption of various nutrients and can be removed by washing and mechanical pearling⁵⁰. Although white coloured quinoa has low level of saponin as compare to yellow line¹⁶.

Based on the protein efficiency ratio, nitrogen balance and protein digestibility, the quality of quinoa protein is equal to the casein protein in milk ²⁹. In an animal experiment, net protein utilization value and biological value for protein was recorded 76% and 92% respectively ³⁰. Heat treatment increases the digestibility of protein as compare to native state by 7% due to removal of saponin containing outer layer of the seed^51,47.  Also, digestibility was found to be higher at acidic pH and decreases with increasing the pH resulting in protein aggregation ⁵². Elsohaimy et al.⁴⁵ recorded 78.37% in vitro digestibility of quinoa protein. Similar results of protein digestibility were obtained by Nasir et al.⁵³ with biological value (79.15 to 81.74%), protein efficiency ratio (3.50 to 3.78) and net protein utilization (70.75 to 73.78%).

 

The fractionation of protein by wet method has 59.3% higher purity and 7% higher yield as compare to quinoa protein isolate by dry fractionation. But quinoa protein concentration has higher digestibility than quinoa protein isolate due to formation of large aggregate during pre-heating of protein⁵⁴. In an another study, the protein efficiency ratio (PER) of two sample and the biological value was recorded 2.99%, 2.87% and 87.73% respectively and overall palatability was observed 9.5 + 0.20⁵⁵. Recently, nanoparticles of quinoa has been developed for its protein content to produce edible films and forming films and coating that helps to extend the shelf life⁵⁶.

 

FUNCTIONAL PROPERTIES OF QUINOA PROTEIN:

Since, seeds are used as edible portion in the quinoa plant and its viability is an important aspect of long-term storage because advanced glycation end product (AGE) accumulation causes Maillard reaction resulting in deterioration of protein. However, it can be restored by pre-germinative humidification ⁵⁷. It is recommended for the kids as it contains all essential amino acids required for the growth of the body.

 

Protein hydrolysate of quinoa helps to improve the radical scavenging activity and inhibits the activity of angiotensin-converting enzyme⁵⁸. It also exhibits inhibitory activity against dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) resulting in as an ingredient with serum glucose lowering properties⁵⁹. Protein extracted by various solvent showed very low immunoreactivity with commercial antigliadin antibody (serum of celiac subject)⁶⁰. Similarly, out of seventeen potential bioactive peptides derived from quinoa protein, peptide fraction less than 5 kDa showed antioxidant activity while peptide fraction greater than 5 kDa possessed anti-cancer effect⁶¹. The presence of non-protein tryptophan influences the serotonin neurotransmitter synthesis by easy absorbing capacity⁶². Altogether, amino acids present in quinoa provide energy, help in liver detoxification, support muscle growth, stimulate the activity of T-lymphocyte⁶³.

 

Emulsifying capacity and stability are some of the critical parameters to consider for the behavior of industrial products. The quinoa protein isolates showed foaming capacity (69.28%), emulsion ability index (2.10 m²/g) and emulsion stability index (38.43 min) which make it convenient to be used in food processing and as additives ⁴⁵. During the study of Steffolani et al.⁶⁴ high thermal stability, oil binding capacity and water binding capacity were found at acidic pH in Bolivian variety of quinoa while high foaming capacity was obtained in Peruvian variety at pH-5.

 

CONCLUSION:

Quinoa is the mother of all grains. In the present scenario, quinoa is an attention-grabbing sustainable crop to mitigate the global food security. The crop has high genetic variability, adaptability and nutritional quality. Its high protein value and unique amino acid composition made it suitable crop for Controlled Ecological Life Support System (CELSS) of NASA. Gluten free seeds are the main edible part with its protein quality to prevent the malnutrition, especially in kids. The in vitro digestibility and other functional properties make it appropriate for the food industry and pharmaceutical applications. The crop could play an important role in export market and national subsistence. In the purview of all these qualities, FAO declared the year 2013 as “International Year of Quinoa” to promote the crop, cultivation and policy framing. Although, the crop is acknowledged for its protein quality but more research is required to study the physico-chemical and molecular characterization of different type of protein, their availability, applications. Improved methods for saponin removal without significant modification of nutritive value must be developed. Intensive cultivation of quinoa should be emphasized and promotion strategies should be carried out to fight with the malnutrition.

 

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Received on 04.02.2020           Modified on 11.03.2020

Accepted on 08.04.2020         © RJPT All right reserved