A Review on European Plum (Prunus domestica) for its Pharmacological activities and Phytochemicals

 

Rishi Kumar Shukla, Kishan*

Department of Chemistry, Gurukula Kangri Vishwavidyalaya, Haridwar (249404), Uttarakhand, India.

 

ABSTRACT:

Medicinal plants have been used traditionally by the native inhabitants since the ancient time for the treatment of many diseases. Plum (Prunus domestica L.) is also a medicinal plant generally 6 to 15meters tall and belong to the family Rosaceae. Its origin is thought to be near the Caspian Sea and it is found in Kashmir, Swat division of Pakistan and India as well. In this paper we have tried to through the light on its classification and chemistry. It has many anti-disease activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihaemolytic, cholinesterase inhibitory, cytotoxic (anticancer), hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, larvicidal and repellent activities. Therefore, this review gives a broad view on its classification, pharmacological activities and its phytochemicals.

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION:

Plants are being used as medicine all over the world. Human culture has been augmented by the plants and the products of the plants since the ancient time^[1]. Plants and plant-based products have been used traditionally by the native inhabitant from the immemorial time as medicine^[2]. Prunus domestica is also a medicinal plant used for the treatment of many diseases^[3]. Prunus domestica is one of the species of plum. Usually, plum refers to the culmination of the genus prunus, which includes Prunus domestica, Prunus salicina, Prunus subcordiata, and Prunus insititia  etc^[4]. There are over 40 species of the plums which are currently known and fruit of plum has a crease running down to one side ^[5]. The origin of the Prunus domestica is thought to have been near to the Caspian Sea and is believed to have been discovered 2000 years ago and is the member of the Rosaceae family^[4,6,7]. Rosaceae family is one of the most economical families of the plants and it is the 19^th largest family of the plants^[8,9]. This family comprises shrubs, herbs or trees which may be rhizomatous, climbing, or thorny^[6,10,11].

 

The flowers of Rosaceae family are generally showy, bisexual, however rarely unisexual also the flowers grow in group of 1 to 5. Rosaceae family tree have stamens which are normally 15 or greater, from time to time 10 or fewer. Filaments are wonderful or basally blended to the nectar disk. The hypanthium of Rosaceae family spans from flat to cup shaped or cylindrical and either unfastened from or adnate to the carpels, often enlarging in fruit^[5,11]. This family contains about 95 to 125 genera ^[12]. Generally, trees of the plum are 6 to 15 meters tall. Stipules linear and apex is acuminate. Plum tree sepals are ovate, outside pubescent, margin entire, apex acute. Petals are white or often chromatic, obovate, base simple, apex rounded to obtuse. The fruit may be drupe red, purple, green, or yellow, sometimes ball-shaped to rectangular, seldom sub-globose, and the size varies from 1 to 2.5cm in diameter^[13]. The presence of the Nemours stamens and the absence of the endosperm are the key apomorphies for systematic classification^[11,14]. Taxonomical classification of the Prunus domestica shown in the (table 1)^{[12,15,16,17]}.

 

The Genus Prunus:

The genus prunus economically important because many of the species are the source of fruits, oils, timber and ornamental^[15]. This genus consists of about 400 species^[18,19]. This genus is widely distributed both in temperate zone as well as in tropical and sub-tropical in Asia, Africa, South America and Australia^[20]. The taxonomy of the genus prunus has been controversial based on the primary morphology on the fruit some researchers have divided it into three, four, five, six and even seven ranks of genera and sub genera within the generic concepts (table 2)^[18,21-29]_.

 

Table 1: Classification of the Prunus domestica L.

Kingdom	Plantae
Subkingdom	Tracheobionta (Vascular plants)
Super-divison	Spermatophyta (Seed plants)
Divison	Magnoliophyta (Flowering plant)
Class	Magnoliopsida (Dicotyledons)
Subclass	Rosidae
Order	Rosales
Family	Rosaceae (Rose family)
Subfamily	Amygdaloideae
Tribe	Amygdaleae
Genus	Prunus
Sub-genus	Prunus subg. prunus
Section	Prunus sect. prunus
Species	Prunus domestica

 

Table 2: Principle taxonomic treatment of the genus Prunus

Rank	Taxa recognised	Author
Genera	Amygdalus, Armeniaca, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, Persica, and Prunus	Tournefort (1700)
Genera	Armeniaca, Cerasus, Padus, and Prunus	Linnaeus (1754)
Subgenera	Amygdalus, Amygdalopsis, Armeniaca, Ceraseides, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, and Prunus	Benthan and Hooker (1865)
Subgenera	Amygdalus, Cerasus, Chamaeamygdalus, Emplectocladus, Microcerasus, Padus, and Prunophora	Focke (1894)
Subgenera	Amygdalus, Cerasus, Padus, and Prunophora	Koehne (1911)
Subgenera	Amygdalus, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, Padus, and Prunophora	Rehder (1940)
Genera	Laurocerasus, Padus, and Prunus	Hutchinson (1964)
Genera	Amygdalus, Armeniaca, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, Padus, Persica, and Prunus	Komarov (1971)
Genera	Amygdalus, Armeniaca, Cerasus, Padus, Laurocerasus and Prunus	Yu¨ et al. (1986)
Subgenera	Amygdalus, Cerasus, Laurocerasus, Padus, and Prunus	Ghora and Panigrahi (1995)

 

About 36 Prunus species have been reported in India till now, out of which 18 species are used for cultivation for different purposes^[30,31,32].

 

Cultivation Nature:

In India Prunus domestica is cultivated in Punjab plains, Himachal Pradesh and Garhwal region of Uttarakhand ^[3]. It is a shrubby, deciduous small tree usually cultivated at high hilly areas, as in Kashmir and Swat division of Pakistan^[33,34]. Prunus domestica L. originated from the Caucasus region in West Asia and South Eastern Europe^[34]. It is also grown wildly in another region of the world like Kashmir (India) and Afghanistan ^[35].

 

Chemistry:

Plums (Prunus domestica) are considered to be the good source of yeast producing organic acids of industrial interest from glycerol^[36]. Plums (Prunus domestica fruit) are also considered to be the rich source of the polyphenols and carotenoids^[37] but the phenolic contents of the leaves is not known more sufficiently, this indicates that the leaves can be the inexpensive, accessible and acquirable source of the phenolic compounds and naturally occurring antioxidants which may possibly have the broad application in the field of the development and evolution of the herbal medicines and food industries^[38].

 

Organic acids are natural constituents of fruits and vegetables. They have a profound effect on the organoleptic properties of fruits and vegetables with particular reference to their flavour, colour and aroma. They are also used as food additive in the manufactures of beverages, fruits and vegetable drink and juices. Acids which are mainly used to improve the quality of beverages are citric acid, mallic acid, and tartaric acid as acidulants and ascorbic acid being an antioxidant^[39].

 

Prunus domestica’s by products are used as a new and cheap source of bioactive peptides^[40]. Stone of fruits such as Prunus domestica L. consist of a hull covering the seed. This under used seed is rich in proteins and lipids thus they may be a cheap source of substance that could be useful for food, cosmetic and pharmaceutical industries. The lipid content of plum seeds has already been explored^[41].

 

The fruits of Prunus domestica have been reported to be used medicinally in India in combination with other drugs for treatment of diseases like leucorrhoea, irregular menstruation and debility following miscarriage^[42]. Mature fruit of the Prunus domestica is used for strengthening the immunity, for improving the eyesight, for prevention of the asthma, arthritis, hypercholesterolemia, alzheimer, anaemia, and cardiovascular diseases^[43,44].

 

Many studies show that the fruit of the Prunus domestica have the high level of antioxidants which consists of the neurological action^[44]. The fruit of Prunus domestica contains many kinds of phenolics predominant compounds of which are caffeoylquinic acid isomers^[45]. The later alone in ethanol extract is reported to have 28.4% oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) which in itself is a proof of health-giving properties of the fruits^[46]. Plums are the good source of many natural compounds including carbohydrates, anthocyanins, flavonoid glycosides, flavonoids dihydroflavonols, abscisic acid, lignans, carotenoid pigment, quinic acid and bipyrroles, and tannins^[37,47-50].

 

Chemical compounds which have been isolated from Prunus domestica:

1.     Yanhong Bi et al. (2018), extracted the Crude β-glucosidase from black plum seeds and performed assay of β-glucosidase activity as well as examined the influences of the IL (ionic liquid) on the primary and the secondary structures of the enzyme, also determined the effects of the various parameters including effects of the temperature (for the identification of the optimum temperature of the enzyme activity), effects of the pH, effect of metal ions and chemical reagents (enzyme activity was found to be 100% in the absence of the metal ions and the chemical reagents), and determined the kinetic parameters and the inhibition constant using the Lineweaver Burk plot method^[51].

2.     Marco Bonesi et al. (2018), examined the potential application of the essential oils from the leaves of the P. domestica L. collected in the months of June, July and August using the Clevenger type apparatus. For the identification of the active compounds gas chromatography (GC) system was employed. The compounds which are found to be present in the essential oil from the leaves of the P. domestica L. are α-pinene, Benzaldehyde, β-pinene, p-Mentha-2,4(8)-diene, trans-Caryophyllene, trans-β-Farnesene, γ-cadinene, delta-cadinene, Tetradecanoic acid, (Z)-Phytol, Hexadecanoic acid, Tricosane, Tetracosane, Pentacosane, Heptacosane, Nonacosane, Triacontane, Entriacontane^[52].

3.     Miljic et al. (2016), done the investigation of the chemical composition of plum’s wine and found the different amount of the Ethanol, Total sugar, pH, Total acid, Malic acid, Citric acid, Volatile acids, Total phenols, Methanol, Glycerol and some metals (mineral contents) such as Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, Zn, Cu in the different varieties of plum^[53].

4.     Larysa Lenchyk (2015), determined the phenolic compounds named as Caffeic acid derivative, Chlorogenic acid, Chlorogenic acid derivative, Caffeic acid, Rutin, Quercetin-3-O-glycoside, Kaempferol-3-O-glycoside, Isoramnetin-3-O-glycoside, Quercetin, Kaempferol, Isoramnetin and monosaccharides named as Glucose, Galactose and Rhamnose in the dry extract of the plum leaves^[54].

5.     Mehta S. et al. (2014), done the phytochemical investigation of the dried plum powder and the metals which are found to be present are Mg, Ca, Fe, Zn, Cu, Tl, Mn, Cr, Sn, Ni, Se, Ti, As, Pb as the minerals and chemicals (table 3) as the secondary metabolites in dried plum by GC/MS screening^[55].

Table 3:

Compound Name
Furfural	Maltol
2,3-dihydro-3,5-dihydroxy-6-methyl-4H-Pyran-4-one	2,3-dihydro- Benzofuran
4-Mercaptophenol	5-Acetoxymethyl-2-furaldehyde
Dianhydromannitol	Eugenol
(E)- 2-Tetradecene	1-Heptadecene
(E)-5-Octadecene	Hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester
n-Hexadecanoic acid	Dibutyl phthalate
Dichloroacetic acid, heptadecyl ester	10,13-Octadecadienoic acid, methyl ester
7-Octadecenoic acid, methyl ester	Octadecanoic acid, methyl ester
Oleic Acid	Octadecanoic acid
2- Chloropropionic acid, octadecyl ester	Cyclotetracosane
Cyclopentadecanone, 2-hydroxy-	1-Nonadecene
β-Sitosterol	1,2-Benzenedicarboxylic acid, diisooctyl ester
Oleic acid, 3-hydroxypropyl ester	Vitamin E
Hexadecanoic acid, 2-hydroxy-1-(hydroxymethyl)ethyl ester

 

6.     Azhar M. et al. (2009), carried out the phytochemical screening of the three different oil fractions got from the n-hexane extract of the Prunus domestica shoots were analysed by using the GC and GC-MS, which led to the identification of the 49 compounds shown in the table 4^[47].

 

Table 4:

Compounds name
6-Propyl tridecane	1-Octadecene
Octadecane	Eicosane
Docosane	Octacosane
Trans-squalene	Nonacosane
Hentricontane	α-Cyclocitral
2,3-Bis(dimethylamino)-2-propenal	Ethyl octanoate
Propyl octanoate	2,4-Decadienal
1,5-Anhydro-2,3,4,6-tetra-O-methyl-D-glucitol	Methyl 9-oxononanoate
Isopropyl 9-oxononanoate	Ethyl dodecanoate
6,10,14-Trimethyl 2-pentadecanone	Methyl 14-methylpentadecanoate
5-Methyl-5-hexayl-3-(3-hydroxy-1-oxobutyl)-2,4(3H,5H)-furandione	Ethyl hexadecanoate
Propyl hexadecanoate	Methyl linoleate
Methyl-3-octadecenoate	Linoleic acid
Ethyl linoleate	Ethyl oleate
15-Methyl heptadecanoic acid, ethyl ester	11-Eeicosonoic acid, methyl ester
Erucic acid	Heneicosanic acid, methyl ester
Androst-3,5,9 triene, 3 acetyloxy, 17 one	Tricosanoic acid methyl ester
Pentacosonoic acid, methyl ester	2-Heptacosanone
1-Hexacosonol	2,10 Dimethyl pentacosanoic acid, methyl ester
Pregn-3-acetyloxy, 5 ene, 16 methyl, 20 one	Stigmastan 3,5 dien
Egrosta-4, 22-diene, 3 one	Hexadecanoic acid eicosyl ester
3 Acetyloxy, 7 dehydro diosgenin	Stigmasta 3,5 diene, 7 one
9 Octadecenoic acid, tetradecyl ester	2 Hydroxy, 1[(palmitoyloxy) methyl] ethyl palmitate
3 Methoxymethoxy, 10,13dimethyl, dodecahydro-1H-cyclopenta[a] phenanthren 17yl] 1,4,5-trimethyl, 2 hexen-6-ol
3(Acetyloxy), 6(3-butenyl) dodecahydro, 3a,6 dimethyl, 7H-benz [e] inden-7-ones
5α Androstane 3,11,12 trihydroxy, 17 carboxylic acid, methyl ester

7.     Kayano S. et al. (2004), isolated 10 chemical compounds and elucidated their structures by the NMR and the MS analyses namely as 3-O-Caffeoylquinic acid methyl ester (1), 4-O-Caffeoylquinic acid methyl ester (2), Caffeic acid metyl ester (3), Coniferin (4), Ferulic acid β-D-glucopyranoside (5), Vanillic acid (6), Scopoletin (7), Magnolioside (8), Benzyl β-primeveroside (9) and a novel compopund 2-(5-Hydroxymethyl-2’,5’-dioxo-2’,3’,4’,5’-tetra-hydro-1’H-1,3’bipyrrole) carbaldehyde (10) ^[48].

 

 

 

10

 

8.     Kayano S. et al. (2002), isolated some components from prune and identified them by NMR and MS analyses named as p-coumaric acid (1), vanillic acid β-glucoside (2), protocatechuic acid (3), caffeic acid (4) and a novel compound 4-amino-4-carboxychroman-2-one (5). The structure of these compounds is as below ^[56].

 

 

9.     Virinder SP et al. (1992), remoted the seven compounds from an alcoholic extract from the heartwood of Prunus domestica. Five of them had been diagnosed as isosakuranetin (1),prudomestin (2), dihydrokaempferide (4), naringenin (7) and 3,5,7-trihydroxy-8,4’-dimethoxyflavanone (5), 5,7,4’-trihydroxy-3-methoxyflavanone (6) and 3,5,7-trihydroxy-6,4’-dimethoxyflavanone (3) as new natural product respectively^{[57,58,59,60,61,62]}.

 

 

 

10. Nagarajan GR et al. (1977), mentioned the compounds remoted from the ether extract of the bark. The extract yielded four compounds Phloracetophenone 4-methyl ether, 4-O-methyl- phloracetophenone, Ploracetophenone and dimethoxy-monohydroxycoumarin^[63].

11. Nagarajan GR et al. (1964), isolated the flavonoid additives of the heartwood of Prunus domestica and found the presence of the compounds named as 5,7dihydroxy4’-methoxy dihydroflavonol and 5, 7 dihydroxy-8,4’-dimeth- oxyllavonol and kaempferol and kucoanthoqanidin and prudomestin^[58].

 

Pharmacological (Biological) activities:

Prunus domestica, is indeed a thesaurus for many biological activities. Some of which are as follows:

 

Antioxidant activity:

It is typically believed that antioxidants inhibit the oxidative mechanism which leads to the degenerative diseases by scavenging the free radicals and reactive oxygen. That is why eradication of free radicals from the living system is extremely important for inhibiting oxidative reaction which leads to degrative to aging process ^[64]. Nature takes care of this aspect by providing antioxidant phytochemicals to living being through fruits and vegetables reducing their risk of chronic health ailments including cancer and cardiovascular disease^[65]. Total phenolic contents and total antioxidant capacity of prunes were found higher than other dry fruits including dates, figs and raisins^[66]. Prune extract and its juice are found to inhibit oxidation of LDL which are understood to be responsible for cardiovascular disease^[67]. Prunus domestica fruits are found to be rich in caffeoylquinic acids, hydroxycinnamic acids, protocatechuic acid, rutin, (-) epicatechin, coumarins, lignans and flavonoids which are jointly responsible for antioxidant activity of the fruits. Two lignan glucosides have been isolated from Prunus domestica fruit which have good oxygen radical absorbance activity^[45,49,67]. ORAC of the juice extract of the plum is shown in the table below. It is clear from the data in the table that the ORAC of the plum is greater than all the fruits mentioned in the table below^[68].

 

 

Antimicrobial Activity:

Antimicrobial activity can be assessed against the different microbes/bacteria i.e. Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhi, Bacillus subtilusetc^[47]. Antimicrobial activity is caused by the distortion or inhibition or stop in the growth of micro-organism^[69]. Antibacterial effect of the prune varies interestingly according to the susceptibility of the micro-organism^[70]. Some of the antimicrobial activities observed by the researchers are mentioned as below:

1.     Mahmood et al. observed moderate antibacterial activity as well as antifungal activity of the oil component of the shoots of P. domestica against Salmonella group and Microsporumcanisby using agar well diffusion method and using the agar tube dilution method respectively^[47].

2.     El-Beltagi HS et al. observed the significant antimicrobial activity from the ethanol and ethyl acetate extract of the plum fruit^[50].

3.     Miljic et al. carried out the antimicrobial activity of the plum wine by the disc diffusion and agar well diffusion method. There was no activity observed by the disc diffusion method whereas agar well diffusion method had given the sufficient activity^[53].

4.     Mehta et al. investigated the antibacterial activity of the dried plum and found to be inhibiting the Proteus mirabilis (Gram -ve), Staphylococcus aureus (Gram +ve), and Staphylococcus epidermis (Gram +ve). The diameter of the one of inhibition zone was the highest in case of the Staphylococcus epidermis i.e. highest activity and lowest inhibition zone was in case of Proteus mirabilis i.e. lowest antibacterial activity^[55].

5.     Belhadj et al. compared the antibacterial activity of the DMSO extract of the plum and prune and found that (Gram +ve and -ve) bacteria were affected equally specially in the case of the prune^[70].

 

Antihaemolytic activity:

Protection of the red blood cells against haemolysis is known as antihaemolysis^[71].

1.     Antihaemolytic activity of the of the DMSO extract of the plum and the prune was measured at different concentrations (5, 10, 50, 100, 200, 400µg/ml) and compared. The highest activity was found to be (31.35 ± 0.28%) at the concentration of 400µg/ml for the prune extract^[50].

 

Cholinesterase inhibitory activity:

Inhibition of acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) enzymes which break down acetylcholine is regarded as cholinesterase activity (responsible for the neurodegenerative disease like Alzheimer’ sdisease^[72].

 

1.     Acetyl cholinesterase (AChE) and Butyryl-cholinesterase (BChE) inhibitory activity was evaluated for the leaves oil of the Prunus domestica and Prunus armeniaca. Prunus armeniaca leaves oil was more active against AChE in comparison to the Prunus domestica whilst Prunus domestica leaves oil was more active against the BChE than Prunus armeniaca^[52].

 

Cytotoxic activity or Anticancer activity:

Cancer is defined asthe biomedically advanced cluster of diseases involving cell transformation, dysregulation of necrobiosis proliferation, invasion, maturation and metastasis^[73]. Suppression in the growth of the cancer is avowed as anticancer activity.

1.     In addition to the antimicrobial activity Miljic et al. observed that the plum wine from the three different varieties Čačanska rana, Čačanskalepotica and Požegača has good cytotoxic effect against the three histologically different cancer cell lines: Hep2c, RD and L2OB. Čačanska rana variety exhibited the greatest activity^[53].

2.     El-Beltagi HS et al. compared the anticancer activity of the ethanolic extract of “Santa Rosa” and “African Rose” varieties of the plum against the three cancerous cell lines namely Liver (HepG2) cell line, Colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cell line and Breast (MCF-7) cell line. It has been found that as the concentration of the ethanolic extract is increased the viability of the cancerous cell line is decreased i.e. the anticancer activity is increased^[50].

 

Hepatoprotective activity:

Activity against the rupture in the natural protective mechanisms of the liver results in the hepatitis or hepatic injury^[74].

1.     Methanol: Ethanol (70:30) extract from the fruit of the Prunus domestica tested for its hepatoprotective activity by Soni et al. in the rats in opposition to Paracetamol and CCl4 induced hepatitis^[74].

 

Anti-Hyperlipidaemic activity:

In vivo as well as in vitro decrease in the plasma and cholesterol level is called as anti-hyperlipidaemic activity^[75].

1.     Prunes have been reported to show the decrease in the plasma, LDL cholesterol in mild hyperlipidaemic person as well as decrease in liver cholesterol in the hyperlipidaemicrats^[75,76].

2.     Consumption of the prune at a level of 9.5% forestalls atherosclerosis in apoprotein-E lacking mouse in high cholesterol diet^[77].

 

Anti-inflammatory activity:

Complex biological response of vascular (tubular) tissues in opposition to the aggressive agents such as pathogens, irritants, or damaged cells in known as inflammation. Inhibition of inflammation in called as anti-inflammation activity^[78].

1.     Hooshmand et al. carried out the study for the evidence of the anti-inflammatory properties of the dried plum polyphenols in macrophage raw 264.7 cells and their findings indicated the strong anti-inflammatory activity lipopolysaccharide (LPS) induced production of the pro-inflammatory markers, nitric oxide (NO) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) ^[79].

2.     Bu Young et al. demonstrated that the polyphenols from the dried plum would down regulate the production of inflammatory (such as NO and TNF-α) mediators responsible to accelerate osteoclastogenesis^[80].

 

Antidiabetic activity:

Delay in the complications arising due to the diabetic and correction in the metabolic abnormalities is referred as antidiabetic activity^[81].

1.     Nayudu et al. studied the antidiabetic activity of the methanolic extract of the plum in the alloxan induced diabetic rats and found methanolic extract reduced the significant aldohexose level^[16].

2.     Nowika et al. carried out the study for the evaluation of the antidiabetic activity by mixing sour cherry juice and puree of plums, peaches and apricots in different amounts and demonstrated that these mixtures have the high potential for controlling the early stages of postprandial hyperglycemia^[82].

 

Larvicidal and Repellent activity:

Generally, the repellents are used as protection against mosquito bites by its application on human skin and larvicidal means toxicity to the larvae of mosquitos for controlling mosquito population^[83].

1.     Activities of the methanol, petroleum ether and chloroform extract of the leaves of the Prunus domestica L. were evaluated against third-instar larvae of the filarial vector, Culex pipiens. Petroleum ether extract was to possess the highest larvicidal activity while highest repellent activity (97.3 and 90.2%) was found from the extractof the petroleum ether of the Prunus domestica L. at the highest dose (3.33 and 5.0mg/cm²) ^[84].

 

DISCUSSION:

It is clearly seen that Prunus domestica L. has many pharmacological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, antihaemolytic, cholinesterase inhibitory, cytotoxic (anticancer), hepatoprotective, antihyperlipidemic, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, larvicidal and repellent activities. This review also has enlightened the phytochemicals which have been isolated from the various parts of the plant of the Prunus domestica. It is also efficient for the treatment of the many diseases because of its medicinal effects which are beneficial for the welfare of the human being.

 

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Received on 09.11.2019            Modified on 08.02.2020

Accepted on 10.05.2020         © RJPT All right reserved