INTRODUCTION:

India being a tropical country is blessed with natural resources and ancient knowledge for its judicious utilization¹. The medicinal plant is exploited as a great environmental and biological diversity compared with the rest of the world². Natural products are gaining their revival as many allopathic drugs causing severe side effects and toxic effects. World Health Organization (WHO) heavily promotes the use of herbal drugs as an alternative medicinal practice in the developing countries³. Around 45% of flowering plants are estimated to have medicinal importance. India ranks tenth among the plant rich countries of the world and fourth among the Asian countries⁴. India is the largest producer of medicinal herbs and is appropriately called the botanical garden of the world^4,5. Calotropis gigantea is one of the precious medicinal herbs in that garden commonly known as arka⁶.

Traditionally, it is believed that, when this herb is used judicially and clocking with the basic principles, they produce tremendous therapeutic effects^6,7. In Sanskrit, arka means “radiance of the Sun” which signifies it’s capability to treat many diseases with just a simple touch. Calotropis is available in two varieties such as Calotropis gigantean and Calotropis procera. Calotropis gigantea is known as “Sweta arka” (white flowered) and Calotropis procera as “Raktha arka” (purple flowered)⁸. Both of them are often similar in their botanical aspects and also have similar pharmacological effects. Among the two varieties, Rakta arka (Calotropis procera) is more toxic and is assumed even more poisonous than cobra venom^9-10.

MYTHOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE:

Calotropis gigantea, a crown flower having a pretty purple colored, slightly scented flower with sweet and agreeable smell¹¹. However, in India, among the general public, it is believed that arka is a white flower with bluish tinge matched the bluish hue of Shiva’s throat & is offered to Lord Shiva on auspicious days. Arka is another name for Lord Surya as mentioned in Hindu epic Suryashtotra. Once when the gods were performing a sacrificial ritual for Lord Surya, some of the milk spilled over the earth. From that spilled milk, sprang a plant which the gods called as arka¹².

ORIGIN AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION:

Calotropis gigantea is native to Asia and South-East Asia and has been introduced in the Pacific Islands, Australia, Central and northern South America and Africa as an ornamental herb. However, its distribution is not completely known, and it probably occurs in other countries as well¹³.

TAXONOMICAL HIERARCHY^14-16:

Kingdom	:	Plantae
Order	:	Gentianales
Family	:	Apocynaceae
Subfamily	:	Asclepiadoideae
Genus	:	Calotropis
Species	:	C. gigantea

VERNACULAR NAMES^17-19:

English	:	Madar, Giant Milk-weed, Roostertree, Mudar plant
Sanskrit	:	Alarka, Rajaarka, Shvetarka, asuka, Mandaar, Bhasvanmuula, Dinesh, Prabhakar
Unani	:	Madaar, Aak
Siddha	:	Erukku
French	:	Calotrope, Pomme de Sodome
German	:	WahreMudarpflanzer, Gomeiner
Italian	:	Calotropo
Bengali	:	Aaknad
Telugu	:	Jilledu, Mandaram
Punjabi	:	Ak
Arab	:	Ushar
Persian	:	Kharak

PHRAMACOGNOSTICAL DESCRIPTION:

Whole plant²⁰:

Large shrub or small tree up to 4–10 m tall, much-branched at base, stems erect, up to 20 cm in diameter; bark pale grey, longitudinally cracked; young shoots woolly hairy; latex in all parts.

Leaves²¹:

The leaf is simple, decussate and sessile. Leaf blade is ovate to obovate in shape with entire margin without any stipules. The leaf is 10-20 cm. long.

Flowers²²:

Flower consists of five pointed petals each 3-5 cm in diameter, purplish or white in umbellate lateral cymes and a small "crown" rising from the center which holds the stamens, having clusters of waxy flowers that are either white or lavender in colour..

Fruits²³:

The fruits having are boat-shaped, , 9-10 cm long, small, thick green with seeds in fleshy follicles covered with white woolly pubescence and a pair of follicles, with tapering at both ends.

Seeds²⁴:

Ovoid shape, 5–6mm long with 2–3cm long coma at one end.

Figure1. Macroscopic view of plant parts a) Leaves b) Flower c) Fruit d) Seed e) Latex

PHYTOCONSTITUENTS AND BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITIES^20-33:

Table 1. List of phytoconstituents present in the plant Calotropis gigntea

Plant parts

Chemical constituents

Structure

Biological activity

Whole

Plant

Diterpenoid Lactones²⁵

Furanolactone,

Clerodane derivatives

Tinosporon,

Tinosporides,

Jateorine, Columbin

Furanolactone Columbin

1. Vasorelaxant

2. Induce contractions

3. Inhibits Ca⁺² influx

4. Anti-inflammatory

5. Anti-microbial

6. Antihypertensive

7. Anti-viral

8. Induce apoptosis in Leukemia

Aliphatic Compound^26,28

Octacosanol,

Heptacosanol

Nonacosan-15-one

Dichloromethane.

Octacosanol

1. Anti-nociceptive

2. Anti-inflammatory

3. Protection against 6-hydroxy-dopamine induced Parkinsonisms in rats.

Stem

Glycosides^22,23,29

18-Norclerodane

glucoside, Furanoid diterpene glucoside,

Tinocordiside,

Tinocordifolioside,

Cordioside, Cordifolioside

Syringin, Syringinapiosyl glycoside, Pregnane glycoside, Palmatosides,

Cordifolioside A, B, C, D and E

Cordifolioside A Syringin

1. Treats neurological disorders like ALS (Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis)

2. Parkinsonism

3. Dementia

4. Motor and cognitive deficits and neuron loss in spine and hypothalamus,

5. Immunomodulation,

6. Inhibits NF-kband, act as nitric oxide scavenger to show anticancer activity.

Root

Alkaloids^25-27,30-33

Berberine, Choline,

Tembetarine, Magnoflorine,

Tinosporin, Palmetine,

Isocolumbin, Aporphine

alkaloids, Jatrorrhizine,

Tetrahydropalmatine

Magnoflorine Berberine

1. Viral infections

2. Cancer

3. Diabetes

4. Inflammation

5. Neurological disorders

6. Immunomodulatory condition

7. Psychiatric condition

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL PROPERTIES:

Various parts of the plant contain immense medicinal property.

Table 2. Ethnopharmacological properties of Calotropis gigntea

Sl. No.	Plant parts	Medicinal uses^33-36
1	Leaf	Skin ulcers, Leprosy, eye problems
2	Flower	Bile suppression, elimination of intestinal worms, coughs, colds and asthma
3	Bark	Analgesic, curative of fever, neurodermatitis, syphilis,(powdered bark) diarrhoea, dysentery, elephantiasis, leprosy,(stem bark) expectorant, and is used for dysentery, spleen complaints, convulsions, lumbago, scabies, ringworm, pneumonia.
4	Fruit	Piles, intestinal worms, eye problems, diabetes, abortive (fruit pulp).
5	Latex	Dysentery, leprosy, elephantiasis, epilepsy, asthma
6	Bud	Earache (Juice of young buds).
7	Seed	Leprosy and intestinal worms.

Table 3. Various uses of Calotropis gigntea in Ayurvedic medicine practice

Plant parts used	Disease	Medicinal therapy^39-40
Flower	Coughs, Asthma	In inhalation therapy (smoke from the bark is inhaled). Flowers are collected, dried in sun shade, made into fine powder.1-2 pinches of this is mixed with little rock salt powder and used for chewing or else this combination can be taken along with warm water.
Leaves	Swelling	3-4 mature leaves of arka are collected and warmed in its ventral side (fine area). Little sesame oil is applied over it & placed over the swelling or inflamed area. 5-6 days regular fomentation helps to reduce the swelling effectively.
	Joints	Mature leaves are made into fine paste without adding water. If necessary salt may be added to it. This paste is applied over inflamed joints. 2-3 days medication helps to reduce the pain and swelling very effectively.
	Muscular pain, eczema	Leaves (50gm) are made into paste mixing sesame oil (200ml) and water (200ml) and are cooked till the water evaporates completely. It is filtered and stored. This can be applied over the painful joints as well as muscular pains.

Table 4. Various pharmacological activities of Calotropis gigantea

Plant parts	Type of extract	Activity reported	Experimental design	Importance finding	Reference
Flower	Ethanol extract	Analgesic	In-vivo acetic acid induced writhing, hot plate method (90 min).	250, 500 mg/kg showed 20.97% and 43% analgesia.	Pathak⁵¹ andArgal (2007)
	Petroleum ether, ethanol (95%), water	Anti-asthmatic	In-vivo mast cell degranulation.	95% ethanol extract showed 72.25 % & 77.14 % protection at 400 and 600 mg/kg doses respectively.	Vadnere et⁵² al. (2010)
	Methanol extract	Anti-bacterial	In-vitro disk diffusion assay.	Highest inhibition against Escherichia coli (14 mm), Salmonella typhi (14 mm) and Shigellasonnei (11mm).	Jayakumar⁵³et al. 2010
	Ethylacetate extract	Anti-cancer	In-vivo effect on cell growth inhibition time.	200 mg/kg showed highest 71.24% inhibition of the Ehrlich′s carcinoma cells proliferation.	Habib et⁵⁴ al. (2010)
	Chloroform extract	Anti-diabetic	Streptozotocin induced model.	LPO, SGPT, SGOT, alkaline phosphatase, cholesterol and triglyceride were decreased significantly by the leaf and flower extracts.	Rathod⁵⁵ et al. (2009b)
	Alcoholic , aqueous	Anti-helmintic	In-vivo Pheretima posthuma (earthworm) tested for paralysis and death time.	The aqueous 100 mg/kg exhibited 12 min for paralysis of earthworm and 21 min for death.	Argal⁵⁶ and Pathak (2007)
	Chloroform and ethanol extracts	Anti-infla-mmatory	In-vivo carrageen induced rat paw-oedema, cotton pellet induced granuloma model.	Both chloroform and ethanolic extracts reduced dry weight granuloma.	Kshirsagar⁵⁷et al. (2008)
	Methanolic extract	Anti-oxidant	In-vitro radical scavenging assays.	Stem showed antioxidant activity 31.43% 40.89% and 65.89% at different dose levels(400, 600 and 800 mg/kg)	Jayakumar⁵³et al. 2010
	Ethyl acetate extract	Anti-tumor	In-vivo ehrlich′s ascites carcinoma model.	200 mg/kg (i.p) showed highest inhibition (71.24%) against Ehrlich′s ascites carcinoma cell lines.	Habib et al.⁵⁸2010
	Ethanolic extract	Hepatoprotective	In-vitro paracetamol induced hepatotoxicity.	Significant decrease in serum enzyme levels, when animal were treated with ethanol extract.	Kshirsagar⁵⁹et al. (2009)
Leaves	Aqueous extract	Anti-bacterial	Agar well diffusion method.	Highest antibacterial activity reported for for Escherichia coli and least for Klebsiella pneumonia.	Kumar ⁶⁰et al. (2010)
	Aqueous extract	Anti-bacterial	In-vivo artemianauplii hatching test and brine shrimp method.	Lower concentration (5 mg/ml) decreased no. of colonies, higher concentration(20 mg/ml) showed complete inhibition of Vibrio alginolyticus.	Baskaralinga⁶¹m et al. 2012
	Hexane and Methanol extracts	Anti-bacterial	In-vitro agar well diffusion method	Zone of inhibitions for Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtiis and Staphylococcus aureu were found to be 23.5, 12. 5 and 16.5 mm respectively.	Jain⁶² et al. 2010
	Methanolic extract	Anti-bacterial	In-vitro disc diffusion assay	Highest inhibition against Escherichia coli, Salmonella typhi and least inhibition against Shigella sonnei.	Jayakumar⁶³et al. 2010
	Hydro-alcoholic extract (70:30)	Anti-oxidant	In-vitro DPPH free radical scavenging, Nitric oxide scavenging, reducing power assay, In-vitro assay for total phenolics, flavonoids, tannin contents (Folin–Ciocalteu reagent).	% age inhibition of free radicals in DPPH (85.17%) in nitric oxide scavenging assay (54.55%), TPC (6374.17 mg gallic acid equivalent/dry weight), tannins (0.52% mg gallic acid equivalent/dry weight) and flavonoids (46.9771.95 mg quercetin equivalent/ dry weight) were reported in the hydro-alcoholic extract (70:30).	Singh⁶⁴ et al. (2010)
	Pet. ether Chloroform Acetone Methanol extracts	Hepato-protective	In-vivo carbon tetrachloride induced hepatotoxicity.	ALP levels were decreased significantly by chloroform & methanol extracts. SGPT levels were significantly reduced by silymarin, methanol & chloroform extracts.	Usmani⁶⁵ and Kushwaha, 2010a
	Methanol, acetone pet.ether chloroform extracts		In-vivo acetaminophen induces hepatotoxicity.	Silymarin, chloroform and methanol extracts showed significant decrease in SGPT. Methanol extract and Silymarin showed significant decrease in SGOT, ALP and bilirubin levels.	Usmani⁶⁶ and Kushwaha (2010b)
Root	Methanolic extract	Anti-asthmatic	Nitric oxide and Total Protein analysis, Measurement of lung wet/dry (W/D) weight.	200 and 400 mg/kg, p.o. significantly decreased the count of eosinophils, neutron-phils, lympocytes and total leucocyte count in the bronchoalveolar lavage. The nitric oxide and total protein levels in bronchoalveolar lavage are decreased	Bulani⁶⁷ et al. (2011)
Root bark	Ethanol extract		In-vivo histamine induced contractions, broncho-constriction haloperidol induced catalepsy and passive paw anaphylaxis.	Histamine induced contraction was decreased at 200 mg/kg of ethanol extract. 300 and 200 mg/kg extract showed potent activity in haloperidol induced catalepsy and paw oedema model.	Mayee⁶⁸ et al. (2011)
Root bark	Methanol extract	Anti-cancer	In vivo ehrlich ascites carcinoma study.	Methanol extract at 10 and 20 mg/kg, increased the life span by 43.90% and 57.07%, respectively.	Habib⁶⁹ and Karim (2011)
Root bark	Ethanolic extract	Anti-fungal	In-vitro disc diffusion assay.	Ethanolic extract showed antifungal activity against Aspergillus niger and Trichoderma harzianum.	Habib⁷⁰ et al. (2009)
Root bark	Methanol Extract	Anti-tumor	In-vivo EAC in swiss albino mice.	Methanol extract and chloroform soluble fraction significantly increased the life span by 43.90% at 20 mg/kg’	Habib⁷¹ and Karim (2011)
Peeled roots	Methanol extract	CNS activity	In-vivo eddy′s hot plate, acetic acid induced writhings, locomotor activity, antianxiety activity, motor co-ordination activity, pentyl-enetetrazole induced convulsions.	No toxicity signs; In hot plate method maximum analgesic activity was observed after 30 min, in Acetic acid induced writhing Methods it showed a significant decrease at a dose of 500 mg/kg. But locomotor activity decreased at 250 & 500 mg/kg. The anticonvulsant activity was significant at 250 & 500 mg/kg.	Argal⁷² and Pathak, 2006
Root bark	Ethanolic extract	Cytotoxic	In-vitro brine shrimp lethality bioassay.	Ethanol extract at LD50 of 66.86 mg/ml was active.	Habib⁷⁰ et al. 2009
Latex		Anti-arthritic	In-vivo Freud's complete adjuvant induced arthritis.	The levels were significantly increased in Hb, RBC, EPO, PCV, WBC, platelet count and ESR, decreased in ALP, AST and ALT and controlled in TC, HDL, LDL, VLDL, TG, PL and FFA level.	Saratha⁷³ and Subramanian (2012)
	Aqueous extract	Anti-bacterial	In-vitro well diffusion method.	In Aqueous extract there is a high MIC for Staphylococcus aureus (30.71), B. cereus (16.71) and Escherichia coli (24.67).	Kumar⁷⁴ et al. 2010b
			In-vitro, modified agar well diffusion.	It was reported that maximum inhibitory activity was shown by latex against Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus Staphylococcus aureus.	Kumar⁷⁵ et al. 2010
	Ethanolic extract	Anti-fungal	In-vitro disc diffusion.	Antifungal activity and MIC showed highest in Candida Albicans (3mg/disc.) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (8mg/ml) respectively, whereas lowest in Saccharomyces cerevisiae (3mg/disc.) and Candida Albicans(1g/ml) respectively.	Saratha⁷⁶ and Subramanian (2010)
		Wound Healing	In-vivo acute dermal toxicity, (Incision & excision).	No toxicity signs; at 200 mg/kg significant wound healing reduced to 83.42%.	Nalwaya⁷⁷ et al. 2009
Stem barks	Water extracts	Anti- convulsant	In-vivo maximum electroshock test (MES), pentylene tetrazole induced seizures (PTZ) study.	In both MES and PTZ the percentage incidence of convulsions showed decreased to 16% and 41% respectively.	Karki⁷⁸ and Babu (2010)
	Ethanolic extract		In-vivo carbon tetra chloride induced liver injury model.	In ethanol extract the parameters such as AST, ALT and LPO were significantly decreased and antioxidant parameters such as GSH, GPX, SOD and catalase levels were increased.	Lodhi⁷⁹ et al. 2009
	Water: ethanol(1:1)	Anti-pyretic	In-vivo acute toxicity study.	Stem bark extract (400 mg/kg i.p) significantly, lower the body temperature as well as rectal temperature.	Chitme⁸⁰ et al. 2005

CONCLUSION:

Nature is the big basket of full of medicinal herbs which are benevolent to human kind since, time immemorial. Since last few decades, there is a rapid occurrence of the deadliest diseases across the world; it forced us to reinvestigate the plant profile systematically. One such plant is reviewed, i.e., Calotropis gigantea. The literature survey shows that a limed work has been reported in the latex part. This milkweed (arka) shows a numerous biological activities. Still there is very few mechanistic pharmacological investigation works were documented. In this review, the percentage of the research work in respect to different plant parts was documented. This informative article also emphasize the absence of pharmacological activity study on plant parts like stem bark, flower twig etc. Henceforth, this review article may play a significant role in near future to explore the novel therapeutic phytoconstituents.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT:

The authors are grateful to School of Pharmaceutical Sciences (Deemed to be University) for providing necessary facilities.

REFERENCE:

1. Sachin S, Asharani, Nagarathna A, Murugan R, Balasubramanian S. Phytochemical Studies on the Methanolic Extract of Calotropis gigantea Leaves. Indo Am. J. Pharm. Sci. 05(07); 2018: 6248-6260.

2. Alves, Rômulo RN, Ierecê ML, Rosa. “Biodiversity, traditional medicine and public health: where do they meet?” Journal of ethnobiology and ethnomedicine. 314; 2007: doi: 10.1186/1746-4269-3-14.

3. Ekor M. The growing use of herbal medicines: issues relating to adverse reactions and challenges in monitoring safety. Front Pharmacol. 4 (177); 2014:1-10.

4. Khoshoo TN. "India's Biodiversity: Tasks Ahead." Current Science. 67; 1994: 577-82.

5. Sailaja V, Madhu M, Neeraja V. Evaluation of Anti-microbial Activity of indigenous Medicinal plants Seed extracts of India Research Library. Der Pharmacia Sinica. 7(4); 2016:44-50.

6. Rukma CK, Shanti R, Divya K M, Ittoop JA. Exploring the hidden potential of Arka (Calotropis procera Linn. & Calotropis gigantea Linn.) an Upavisha in the field of toxicology The Pharma Innovation Journal. 6(12); 2017: 183-187.

7. Asthana S, Bansal SL. Role of ayurvedic medicinal plants in ancient India. International Journal of Advanced Science and Research. 1(8); 2016: 04-07.

8. Oloumi H. Ethno-Pharmaceutical products Phytochemistry and Ethno-Pharmaceutics of Calotropis procera. Ethno-Pharmaceutical products. 1(2); 2014:1-8.

9. Hadimani SM, Anitha MG. A review on toxicity of calotropis (arka) and management. International Journal of Ayurveda and Pharma Research. 3(4); 2015:1-5.

10. Dattatray SD, Kamini BB, Jaiswal M. ARKA (Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br.): a potent drug of Indian Materia medica. World journal of pharmacy and pharmaceutical sciences. 6(5), 2017:471-487.

11. Tezara W, Colombo R, Coronel I, Marı O. Water relations and photosynthetic capacity of two species of Calotropis in a tropical semi-arid ecosystem. Annals of botany.107 (3); 2011:397-405.

12. https://www.hinduscriptures.com/vedic-lifestyle/food/arka.

13. Murti Y, Yogi B, Pathak D. Pharmacognostic standardization of leaves of Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. (Asclepiadaceae). Int J Ayurveda Res. 1(1); 2010: 14-7.

14. Sarkar S, Chakraverty R, Ghosh A. Calotropis gigantea Linn. – A Complete Busket of Indian Traditional Medicine. Int. J. Pharm. Res. Sci., 02(1); 2014:7-17.

15. Ramasubramania R, Kishore N, Sreenivasulu M, Rasool Bee SK, Nandini S, Ooha L, Chaitanya N. Calotropis gigantea- botanical, pharmacological view. Journal of Medicinal Plants Studies. 4(2); 2016:87-89.

16. Almeida IVB, Neder DG, Fabiane DCB, Dutra WG. Characterization and early selection of silk blossom (Calotropis procera) genotypes with forage potential. Rev. Caatinga, Mossoro. 30; 2017:794 – 801.

17. Upadhyay RK. Ethnomedicinal, pharmaceutical and pesticidal uses of Calotropis procera (Aiton) (Family: Asclepiadaceae). Int J Green Pharm. 8; 2014:135-46.

18. Tezara W, Colombo R, Coronel I, Marı O. Water relations and photosynthetic capacity of two species of Calotropis in a tropical semi-arid ecosystem. Annals of botany.107 (3); 2011:397-405.

19. Parhira S, Yang ZF, Zhu GY, Chen QL, Zhou BX, Wang YT, Liu L. In vitro anti-influenza virus activities of a new lignan glycoside from the latex of Calotropis gigantea. PLoS ONE. 9 (8); 2014: 1-14

20. Sivamani P, Baskaran C, Jamal M. Evaluation of Anti Microbial Activity and Phytochemical analysis of Organic Solvent extracts of Calotropis gigantea. IOSR Journal of Pharmacy. 2(3); 2012:389-394.

21. Verma S, Srivastava M, Shahjahan, Varma RK, Yadav P. Calotropis gigantea (L) Root: Pharmacognostic Evaluation. Human Journals. 9 (1); 2017: 37-48.

22. Srivastava S, Singh AP, Rawat AK. Comparative botanical and phytochemical evaluation of Calotropis gigantea and C. procera (Linn). JAPS5 (7); 2015; 041-047.

23. Patel H.V, Patel J.D, Patel B. Comparative efficacy of phytochemical analysis and antioxidant activity of methanolic extract of Calotropis gigantea and calotropis procera. IJBPR. 5(2); 2014.

24. Misra MK, Mohanty MK, Das PK. Studies on the Method – Ethnobotany of Calotropis gigantea and C. procera. Ancient Science of Life. XIII (1 & 2); 1993: 40 – 56.

25. Mushir A, Jahan N, Ahmed A. A review on phytochemical and biological properties of Calotropis gigantea (Linn.). Discovery Phytomedicine.3 (2); 2016: 15-21.

26. Medicinal Plants in Folklores of Bihar and Orissa. CCRUM, Ministry of Health & Family Welfare, Govt of India. Department of Indian system of Medicine and Homeopathy; 2001: 119-120.

27. Medicinal Plants of Andhra Pradesh. Part. I. CCRUM, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Govt. of India; 1999: 28.

28. Mohaimenul M, Hossain M. Ismail, Osman MA, Aziz M. Abdul, Habib M. Rowshahul, Karim M, Rezaul A. Terpenoid and a steroid from Calotropis gigantea (L.) Novel Science International Journal of Pharmaceutical Science. 1(8); 2012:580-584.

29. Ramamurthy N and Kannan S: Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic analysis of a plant (Calotropis gigantea Linn) from an industrial village, Cuddalore dt, Tamilnadu, India. Romanian J Biophys. 17; 2007: 269-276.

30. Wang ZN, Wang MY, Mei WL, Han Z, Dai HF. A New Cytotoxic Pregnanone from Calotropis gigantea and Molecules. 13; 2008: 3033-3039.

31. Joshi A, Singh N, Pathak AK., Tailang M. Phytochemistry and evaluation of antioxidant activity of Whole plant of Calotropis gigantea linn. IJRAP. 1 (1); 2010: 120-125.

32. Elakkiya P, Prasanna GA. Study On Phytochemical Screening And invitro Antioxidant Activity Of Calotropis gigantea L. International Journal of Pharm Tech Research. 4(4);1428-1431.

33. Ajay KM, Ajay Y, Rao MM. Ayurvedic uses and pharmacological activities of Calotropis procera Linn. Asian Journal of Traditional Medicines. 6(2); 2011:49-53.

34. Chopra RN. Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plant. New Delhi: National Institute Science communication and information Resources (CSIR).2002: 46.

35. Daniel M. Medicinal plants: chemistry and properties. Oxford & IBH publishing: New Delhi; 2006: 131.

36. Rastogi RP. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. V-IV. Lucknow: Central Drug Research Institute & National Institute of Science Communication; 2002: 137.

37. Chandra RT, Chaubey S, Kumar N, Deep KG. Calotropis sp. therapeutic & toxicological consideration. International Ayurvedic Medical Journal.3 (11); 2015.

38. Verma S, Rajbala. A study on ayurvedic herb Calotropis gigantea International Journal of Current Research and Modern Education. 3(1); 2018: 41-44.

39. The Wealth of India. A Dictionary of Indian Raw Material and Industrial Products. Volume-III. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi. 2004:78-81.

40. Dwivedi A, Chaturvedi M, Gupta A and Argal A. Medicinal utility of Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. as used by natives of village Sanwer. Journal of pharmacy & life sciences. 1(3); 2010:188-190.

41. Mohammed R, Mohammed U, Md. Abullais Usman, Patil S. A. Isolation of preliminary phytoconstituents and anti-inflammatory and antipyretic activity of Calotropis gigantea linn. Leaves Extracts. IJPSR. 3(4): 2012:1208-1214.

42. Insecticidal Activity of Root Bark of Calotropis gigantea L. Against Tribolium castaneum (Herbst) World Journal of Zoology. 4 (2); 2009: 90-95.

43. Bulani V, Biyani K, Kale R, Joshi U, Charhate K, Kumar D, Pagore R. Inhibitory effect of Calotropis gigantea extract on Ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation and Arachidonic acid induced inflammation in a murine model of asthma. Int J Cur Bio Med Sci.1 (2); 2011: 19 – 25.

44. Argal A, Dwivedi A. Evaluation of Hepatoprotective Activity of Calotropis gigantea R.Br. Flowers. Ethnobotanical leaflets 14; 20104:27-34.

45. Vasanthi R, Janagi N, Mazher S. Cytotoxicity of the plant extracts from common milkweed, Calotropis gigantea. J. Bio sci. Res. 3(3); 2012: 207-213.

46. Habib RM, Alam AM, Haque MA, Nikkon F, Rezaul KM. Cytotoxicity and antifungal Cytotoxicity and Antifungal Activities of Root Bark of Calotropis gigantean. Stamford Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences S. J. Pharm. Sci. 2(2); 2009: 38-41.

47. Prabha MR, Vasantha K. Antioxidant, Cytotoxicity and Polyphenolic Content of Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br. Flowers. Journal of Applied Pharmaceutical Science. 01 (07); 2011:136-140.

48. Hemalatha M, Arirudran B, Thenmozhi A, Rao M, Antimicrobial Effect of Separate Extract of Acetone, Ethyl Acetate, Methanol and Aqueous from Leaf of Milkweed (Calotropis gigantea L.). Asian J. Pharm. Res. Article. 1(4); 2011: 102-107.

49. Murgan T. Antimicrobial activity of leaves and latex extract of the Herbal plant Calotropis gigantea. IJBPAS. 1(3); 2012: 261-270.

50. Teotia D, Chakrabar SP, Ajay S S. Impact of Calotropis gigantea Leaves via Different Routes of Administration in Normal and Alloxan Induced Diabetic Rats. International Journal of Scientific and Research Publications.3 (5); 2013: 1-6.

51. Pathak AK, Argal A, Analgesic activity of Calotropis gigantea flower. Fitoterapia.78; 2007:40–42.

52. Vadnere GP, Gaud RS, Singhai AK, Agrawal AS. Effect of Calotropis gigantea flowers extracts on mast cell degranulation in rats. Pharmacologyonline. 3; 2010:298–303.

53. Jayakumar D, Mary SJ, Santhi RJ. Evaluation of antioxidant potential and antibacterial activity of Calotropis gigantea and Vinca rosea using invitro model. Indian Journal of Science and Technology. 3; 2010:720–723.

54. Habib MR, Aziz MA, Karim MR. Inhibition of Ehrlich′s ascites carcinoma by ethyl acetate extract from the flower of Calotropis gigantea L. in mice. Journal of Applied Biomedicine. 8; 2010:47–54.

55. Rathod NR, Raghuveer I, Chitme HR, Chandra R. Free radical scavenging activity of Calotropis gigantea on Streptozotocin-Induced diabetic rats. Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences.71; 2009b: 615–621.

56. Argal A, Pathak AK. Anthelmintic and antimicrobial activity of Calotropis gigantea flowers. The Pharmacist 2; 2007: 21–23.

57. Kshirsagar A, Patil PA, Ashok P, Hulkoti B. Anti-inflammatory and antiulcer effects of Calotropis gigantea. R.Br flowers in rodent. Journal of Natural Remedies. 8; 2008: 183–190.

58. Habib MR, Aziz MA, Karim MR. Inhibition of Ehrlich′s ascites carcinoma by ethyl acetate extract from the flower of Calotropis gigantea L. in mice. Journal of Applied Biomedicine.8; 2010:47–54.

59. Kshirsagar A, Purnima A, Ingawale D, Vyawahare N, Ingale K, Hadambar A. Antioxidant and hepatoprotective activity of ethanolic extract of Calotropis gigantea against Paracetamol induced Liver damage in mice. Journal of Cell and Tissue Research. 9; 2009: 1859–1864.

60. Kumar G, Karthik L, Rao K.V.B. Antibacterial activity of aqueous extract of Calotropis gigantea leaves an in-vitro study. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research 4; 2010a: 141–144.

61. Baskaralingam V, Sargunar CG, Lin YC, Chen JC. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles through Calotropis gigantea leaf extracts and evaluation of antibacterial activity against Vibrio alginolyticus. Nanotechnology Development. 2; 2012:13–16.

62. Jain P, Bansal D, Bhasin P Anjali. Antimicrobial activity and phytochemical screening of five wild plants against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis and Staphylococcus aureus. Journal of Pharmacy Research 3; 2010:1260–1262.

63. Jayakumar D, Mary SJ, Santhi RJ. Evaluation of antioxidant potential and antibacterial activity of Calotropis gigantea and Vinca rosea using invitro model. Indian Journal of Science and Technology 3; 2010:720–723.

64. Singh N, Jain NK, Kannojia P, Garud N, Pathak AK, Mehta SC. In-vitro antioxidant activity of Calotropis gigantea hydroalcoholic leaves extract. Der Pharmacia Lettre 2; 2010: 95–100.

65. Usmani S, Kushwaha P. A study on hepatoprotective activity of Calotropis gigantea extracts leaves. International Journal of Pharmacy and harmaceutical Sciences. 2; 2010a:101–103.

66. Usmani S, Kushwaha P. Hepatoprotective activity of extracts of leaves of Calotropis gigantea. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research 3; 2010b:195–196.

67. Bulani V, Biyani K, Kale R, Joshi U, Charhate K, Kumar D, Pagore R. Inhibitory effect of Calotropis gigantea extract on ovalbumin-induced airway inflammation and Arachidonic acid induced inflammation in a murine model of asthma. International Journal of Current Biological and Medical Sciences. 1; 2011:1:9–25.

68. Mayee R, Thosar A, Kondapure A. Evaluation of antiasthmatic activity of Calotropis gigantea roots. Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research.4; 2011:33–35.

69. Habib MR, Karim MR. Evaluation of antitumour activity of Calotropis gigantea L. root bark against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine 4; 2011:786–790.

70. Habib MR, Ashraful AM, Haque MA, Farjana N, Rezaul MK. Cytotoxicity and antifungal activities of root bark of Calotropis gigantea. Stamford Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 2; 2009: 38–41.

71. Habib MR, Karim MR. Evaluation of antitumour activity of Calotropis gigantea L. root bark against Ehrlich ascites carcinoma in Swiss albino mice. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Medicine. 4; 2011:786–790.

72. Argal A, Pathak AK. Anthelmintic and antimicrobial activity of Calotropis gigantea flowers. The Pharmacist 2; 2007: 21–23.

73. SarathaV, Subramanian SP. a triterpenoid isolated from Calotropis gigantea latex eliorates the primary and secondary complications of FCA induced adjuvant disease in experimental rats. Inflammopharmacology 20; 2012:27–37.

74. Kumar G, Karthik L, Rao KVB. Antimicrobial activity of latex of Calotropis gigantea against pathogenic microorganisms - an in vitro study. Pharmacologyonline. 3; 2010b: 155–163.

75. Kumar G, Karthik L, Rao KVB. Antibacterial activity of aqueous extract of Calotropis gigantea leaves an in-vitro study. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research. 4; 2010a: 141–144.

76. Saratha V, Subramanian S, Sivakumar S. Evaluation of wound healing potential of Calotropis gigantea latex studied on excision wounds in experimental rats. Medicinal Chemistry Research. 19; 2010: 936–947.

77. Nalwaya N, Pokharna G, Deb L, Jain N. Wound healing activity of latex of Calotropis gigantea. International Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences. 1; 2009: 176–181.

78. Karki SS, Babu S. Studies on anti-convulsant activity of stem barks of Calotropis gigantean Linn in experimental animals. International Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences Review and Research. 5; 2010:114–116.

79. Lodhi G, Singh HK, Pant KK, Hussain Z. Hepatoprotective effects of Calotropis gigantea extract against carbon tetrachloride induced liver injury in rats. Acta Pharmaceutica. 59; 20098: 9–96.

80. Chitme HR, Chandra R, Kaushik S. Evaluation of antipyretic activity of Calotropis gigantea (Asclepiadaceae) in experimental animals. Phytotherapy Research. 19; 2005: 454–456.

Received on 06.11.2018 Modified on 21.01.2019

Research J. Pharm. and Tech. 2020; 13(1): 461-467.

DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2020.00090.6