1. INTRODUCTION:

Scientific name Allium sativum is a species in the onion genus, Allium. It was known to Ancient Egyptians, and has been used both as a food flavoring and as a traditional medicine. In myths, garlic has been regarded as a force for both good and evil ^1-5. In Europe, many cultures have used garlic for protection or white magic, perhaps owing to its reputation in folk medicine. In Islam, it is generally recommended not to eat raw garlic prior to going to the mosque, since the odor could distract other Muslims during their prayer. Garlic is thought to stimulate and warm the body and to increase one's desires. Some devout Hindus generally avoid using garlic and the related onion in the preparation of foods, while less devout followers may only observe this for religious festivities and events. Followers of the Jain religion avoid eating garlic and onion on a daily basis ^6-21. Allyl methyl sulfide (AMS)is a volatile liquid which is absorbed into the blood during the metabolism of garlic-derived sulfur compounds; from the blood it travels to the lungs (and from there to the mouth, causing bad breath; see garlic breath) and skin, where it is exuded through skin pores. Washing the skin with soap is only a partial and imperfect solution to the smell. Studies have shown sipping milk at the same time as consuming garlic can significantly neutralize bad breath. Mixing garlic with milk in the mouth before swallowing reduced the odor better than drinking milk afterward ^22-43. Plain water, mushrooms and basil may also reduce the odor; the mix of fat and water found in milk, however, was the most effective. Several reports of serious burns resulting from garlic being applied topically for various purposes, including naturopathic uses and acne treatment, indicate care must be taken for these uses, usually testing a small area of skin using a very low concentration of garlic. On the basis of numerous reports of such burns, including burns to children, topical use of raw garlic, as well as insertion of raw garlic into body cavities, is discouraged. In particular, topical application of raw garlic to young children is not advisable. The side effects of long-term garlic supplementation are largely unknown, and no FDA-approved study has been performed. Possible side effects include gastrointestinal discomfort, sweating, dizziness, allergic reactions, bleeding, and menstrual irregularities. Some people suffer from allergies to garlic and other species of Allium. Symptoms can include irritable bowel, diarrhea, mouth and throat ulcerations, nausea, breathing difficulties, and, in rare cases, anaphylaxis. Garlic-sensitive patients show positive tests to diallyl disulfide, allylpropyldisulfide, allylmercaptan and allicin, all of which are present in garlic. People who suffer from garlic allergies are often sensitive to many other plants, including onions, chives, leeks, shallots, garden lilies, ginger, and bananas.

2. Anti-microbial effects

2.1 Antibacterial

Allicin and other sulfur compounds are thought to be the major compounds responsible for the antimicrobial effect of garlic. Garlic is effective against a number of gram-negative, gram-positive, and acid-fast bacteria, including Staphylococcus, Salmonella, Vibrio, Mycobacteria, and Proteus species. Aqueous, ethanol and chloroform extracts of garlic inhibited the growth of the pathogenic bacteria, though with varying degrees of susceptibility. The gram positive Staphylococcus aureus was more susceptible to the toxic effects of garlic than its gram negative counterparts. It has been shown that the aqueous extract of garlic can be used alongside conventional antibiotics to fight agents of nosocomial infections that are so prevalent in hospitals. An in vitro study on the effects of aqueous and ethanolic extracts of garlic against specific bacteria such as Escherichia coli and sal. typhi showed that the aqueous extract had little or no inhibition while the ethanolic extract had a higher inhibitory effect. Allicin in its pure form was found to exhibit antibacterial activity against multidrug-resistant enterotoxicogenic strains of E. coli. In another study, the aqueous extract exhibited antibacterial activity against gram positive (Bacillus subtilis, Staph. aureus) and Gram negative (E. coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae) strains, while methanol extract showed antimicrobial activity against all the tested microorganisms except Stap. aureus. Garlic ethanolic extract showed maximum activity against B. subtilis. Allitridi, a proprietary garlic derivative, has been successfully used to treat systemic bacterial infections (such as Helicobacter pylori) in China. It was shown in another study that the extract of garlic strongly inhibits Sal. enteritidis; however Staph ^44-65. aureus showed less sensitivity. It has been shown that Gram-negative diarrheagenic pathogens (E. coli, Shigella sp, Salmonella sp, and Pro. mirabilis) from stool samples were highly sensitive to garlic. The significant antibacterial activity of garlic extract on streptomycin-resistant strains (Gram-positive Staph. aureus and Gram-negative E. coli) solely and in synergism with streptomycin has also been proved. In a study by Lai and Roy, fresh extracts of A. sativum (garlic) and Nigella sativum (black cumin) had more antibacterial activity against the isolates of the urinary tract infection, compared to the individual extract or drugs, such as cefalexin, cotrimoxazole, and nalidixic acid. Garlic has antibacterial activity against the pig pathogen Actinobacillus pleuropneumoniae serotype 9. The main compound that is suggested to be responsible for this effect of garlic is volatile allyl methyl sulfide (AMS) as a lead compound of volatile garlic metabolites. Garlic extract was also effective against Streptococcus mutans when tested both in vitro and in vivo. As Strep. mutans is one of the primary aetiological organisms in dental caries development, garlic extract mouth rinse might be used effectively in the prevention of dental caries.

2.2 Antifungal

Allicin (diallyl-dithiosulfinate), which is produced by the garlic enzyme alliinase from the alliin, has been shown to have wide-range antifungal specificity. An in vivo study showed that antibody-alliinase conjugates and alliin are effective against murine pulmonary aspergillosis. One study showed that allicin from garlic has antifungal activity particularly against Candida albicans. Another in vitro study showed both intrinsic antifungal activity of allicin and its synergy with the azoles, in the treatment of candidiasis. Studies on the effect of Amphotericin B (AmB) against C. albicans showed that allicin enhances significantly the effect of AmB against Candida albicans, Saccharomyces cerevisiae and against Aspergillus fumigatus in vitro and in vivo Table 1. It was found in another study that polymyxin B (PMB), is effective against various yeasts and filamentous fungi when used in combination with allicin. This combination increases the plasma membrane permeability in Saccharo cerevisiae. Swollen spherical structure of the yeast disappeared as a result of structural alterations of its vacuole caused by the synergistic activity between PMB and allicin combination. A study showed the effects of diallyldisulphide (DADS), one of the components of garlic, on antioxidant systems in Candida species. Changes in antioxidant metabolites and antioxidant activity in the presence of DADS were found in C. albicans and C. tropicalis. DADS caused a decrease in the activity of all antioxidant enzymes except catalase ^66-89. One study showed that six different mixtures of garlic distilled oils containing diallyl disulfide(DDS) and diallyl trisulfide (DTS), are active against a number of yeasts (C. albicans, C. tropicalis and Blastoschizomyces capitatus). Saponins from A. sativum were shown to be effective against Botrytis cinerea and Trichoderma harzianum. Essential oil vapors from A. sativum also have inhibitory activity against Ascosphaera apisin in vitro. In one study, allicin was shown to be more potent in the growth inhibition of C. albicans and also suppression of HWP1 gene expression in comparison with fluconazole, a commonly used antifungal. This compound does not occur in garlic until it is crushed or injured. Ajoene, another constituent of garlic, is responsible for many pharmacological activities of this plant specially its antifungal effect. This substance is more effective in association with antifungal drugs (sulfametoxazol/ trimethoprim) in the treatment of mice intratracheally infected with Paracoccidioides brasiliensis. In an in vitro study the growth of both Asper. niger and C. albicans were inhibited by ajoene at <20, ug/ml. High zones of inhibition were noted with ethanol extracts of A. sativum tested against dermatophytes, saprophytes, and Candida species isolated from infected hospitalized patients. It has been proven that the blockage of lipid synthesis by aqueous extracts of garlic plays an important role in the anticandidal activity of this plant. Alcoholic extracts also have potential anticryptococcal activity against murine disseminated cryptococcosis. Another study also showed the sensitivity of Cryptococcus neoformans against A. sativum. A novel antifungal protein, designated allivin, was isolated from A. sativum with antifungal activity against Botrytis cinerea, Mycosphaerella arachidicola and Physalosporapiricola.

2.3 Anti-parasitic

An ultrastructural study showed that allicin is able to produce morphological changes in the male Schistosoma mansoni. Another study indicated that Allicin has antiparasitic activity against Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei brucei. It is also effective against some major human intestinal protozoan parasites such as Entamoeba histolytica and Giardia lamblia. Diallyl trisulfide is a chemically stable final transformation product of allicin. The activity of diallyl trisulfide was investigated against several important protozoan parasites in vitro. The results indicated that the compound has the potential to be used in treatment of several human and animal parasitic diseases such as Trypanosoma sp, Ent. histolytica and Giar. lamblia. Ajoene isolated from A. sativum is an inhibitor of human glutathione reductase and Trypa. cruzi trypanothione reductase. The antiparasitic and cytostatic actions of ajoene may at least in part be due to the multiple effects on key enzymes of the antioxidant thiol metabolism. Alchinal is a preparation of three different substances including Echinacea purpurea and A. sativum extracts and cocoa. It has been demonstrated that this preparation significantly decreases the number of adult forms and muscular larvae of Trichinella spiralis. It was demonstrated that after Alchinal administration, the number of adult forms and muscular larvae of this parasite was significantly decreased. Garlic oil is effective against a wide range of microorganisms including Plasmodium spp, Trypanosoma spp, Leishmania spp, Giardia spp, and Cochlospermum planchonii. Its aqueous extract has been shown to be effective against hymenolepiasis and giardiasis also. In an in vitro study the ethanol, dichloromethane and water extracts of A. sativum were shown to have anthelmintic activity against Haemonchus contortus from sheep. The ethanol extract was the most effective in decreasing larval count. Another study showed that garlic is effective against nematodes ^90-95. Aqueous extract from garlic has good activity against Trichuris muris and Angiostrongylus cantonensis when followed by chloroform extract. Garlic is an ingredient of a mixture (Prepared from the extracts of coconut, onion, garlic, fig, date tree, chicory, ananas, and cistrose) tested in vivo and in vitro for its anthelmintic activity against cestodes (Hymenolepis diminuta, H. microstoma, andTaenia taeniaeformis) and trematodes (Fasciola hepatica, Echinostoma caproni). In all in vitro tests, the target parasites died. In addition, the same composition was effective against the intestinal fluke Echino caproni, but not against the liver fluke F. hepatica in the final host, while both worms were killed in vitro.

2.4. Antiviral

A. sativum has been shown to have antiviral activity. In one study the virucidal activity of this plant was attributed to the following contents in this order: ajoene > allicin > allyl methyl > thiosulfinate > methyl allyl thiosulfinate. Also Allicin, the main constituent of A. sativum, has a variety of antimicrobial activities both in vitro and in vivo. Among the viruses which are sensitive to garlic extracts are the human Cytomegalovirus (HCMV), influenza B virus, Herpes simplex virus type 1, Herpes simplex virus type 2, Parainfluenza virus type 3, vaccinia virus, vesicular stomatitis virus, and human Rhinovirus type 2. One study showed that Allicin-containing supplements can prevent attacks by the common cold virus ⁹⁵. The main antimicrobial effect of Allicin is due to its chemical reaction with thiol groups of various enzymes, e.g. alcohol dehydrogenase.

3. Cardiovascular effects

3.1. Antihypertensive

A statistical study showed that individuals whose blood pressures are on the lower side are more likely to consume more garlic in their diets. Various epidemiologic studies have indicated an inverse correlation between garlic consumption and progression of cardiovascular disease. The authors are of the opinion that garlic is effective in treatment of mean systolic blood pressure but not d-penicillamine. In one study the aqueous garlic extract (AGE) caused a decrease in blood pressure and bradycardia by direct mechanism not involving the cholinergic pathway, suggesting a likely involvement of peripheral mechanism for hypotension. Another study showed that AGE prevents oxidative stress, systolic blood pressure, aortic NAD(P)H oxidase activity and vascular remodeling in rats with metabolic syndrome. A study on the effects of two garlic sources has the potential to reduce systolic blood pressure. The effect of aged garlic extract was accompanied by a decrease of pulse pressure (PP), suggesting an improvement of the pliability of the artery, although raw garlic (RG) powder did not affect PP. However, harmful effects were observed in the RG group, including a decrease in erythrocytes, an increase in reticulocytes, and generation of papilloma in the forestomach. Another study showed that garlic is a potent vasorelaxant and could reduce the atherogenic properties of cholesterol. A small pilot study indicated the potential ability of aged garlic extract to inhibit the rate of progression of coronary calcification. In a study garlic appeared to be a good adaptogen to be utilized in patients with coronary artery disease. One study indicated that increased intake of garlic has been associated with reduced mortality in cardiovascular patients or reduced incidence of myocardial infarction, stroke, and hypertension. Another study showed that garlic may beneficially affect two risk factors for atherosclerosis--hyperlipidemia and hypertension. In One survey the authors are of the opinion that although H₂S (hydrogen sulfide) role in blood pressure regulation and interaction with NO is controversial, H₂S, through its anti-apoptotic, anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects, has demonstrated significant cardioprotection. As a result, a number of sulfide-donor drugs, including garlic-derived polysulfides such as diallyl disulfide, diallyl trisulfide and S-ally cysteine, are currently being designed and investigated for the treatment of cardiovascular conditions such as hypertension. Stimulation of nitric oxide generation in endothelial cells seems to be the critical preventive mechanism. Cardioprotective effects of dietary garlic are mediated in large part via the generation of H₂S. Garlic-derived organic polysulfides are converted by erythrocytes into hydrogen sulfide which relaxes vascular smooth muscle, induces vasodilation of blood vessels, and significantly reduces blood pressure. Administration of moderate doses of garlic along with propranolol has been shown to have beneficial effects in animals with hypertension and myocardial damage. Another study indicated that garlic in moderate doses with added hydrochlorothiazide (HCTZ) possesses synergistic cardioprotective and antihypertensive properties against fructose- and isoproterenol-induced toxicities, by increasing the lactate dehydrogenase, creatinine phosphokinase, superoxide dismutase and catalase activities in heart homogenate when used concurrently or separately. The influence of garlic on pharmacokinetics of HCTZ was studied. The administration of HCTZ in garlic homogenate pretreated rats was found to decrease the QRS duration, RR interval, QT segment, systolic blood pressure, heart rate, serum potassium level, serum LDH and serum CK-MB activities significantly. It was concluded that careful addition of garlic in moderate doses might result in beneficial effect during treatment of hypertension in patients with myocardial stress as garlic causes substantial fall in excretion of potassium when compared to HCTZ alone treatment in rats. One study represented that combination of garlic or its bioactive constituent, S-allyl cysteine sulphoxide, and captopril exerted super-additive (synergistic) interaction with respect to fall in blood pressure and ACE inhibition. Another study showed that S-allyl-mercapto-captopril (CPSSA), a conjugate of captopril with allicin, was effective in attenuating systolic and diastolic blood pressures as well as significantly reducing glucose levels. A comparable study between the effects of allicin and enalapril on blood pressure (BP) showed similar effects, both of which reduce BP.

3.2. Antiatherosclerotic

Sulfur-containing volatiles from garlic are the principal compounds responsible for such property and the most abundant volatile compound is diallyl disulfide followed by diallyl trisulfide. These active constituent(s) of garlic responsible for its anti-atherogenic action are shown to be mostly present in the oily fraction of the plant. Among these constituents, allicin is another compound that plays an important role in anti-atherosclerotic activity of garlic. It is produced upon crushing of the garlic clove. A pure allicin preparation may affect atherosclerosis not only by acting as an antioxidant, but also by other mechanisms, such as lipoprotein modification and inhibition of LDL uptake and degradation by macrophages. Fish oil and garlic combinations can serve as good dietary supplements with anti-atherosclerotic properties. Other possible mechanisms for lipid lowering and anti-atherogenic effects of garlic include inhibition of the hepatic activities of lipogenic and cholesterogenic enzymes that are thought to be the origin for dyslipidemias, increased excretion of cholesterol and suppression of LDL-oxidation. In an in vitro study, the potential anti-atherosclerotic property of moderate and high doses of garlic homogenate (GH was significantly attenuated by propranolol and hydrochlorothiazide. However, GH anti-hyperlipidemic activity was augmented by captopril. Another study indicated that (egg yolk-enriched garlic powder) EGP inhibits copper-induced LDL oxidation in a dose-dependent manner that might be ascribed, in part, to the biodistribution of garlic compounds and egg yolk interaction. This finding suggests that EGP might be useful in the prevention of atherosclerosis.

3.3. Antithrombotic

Garlic extracts and several garlic constituents demonstrated significant antithrombotic actions both in vitro and in vivo. Allicin and adenosine are the most potent antiplatelet constituents of garlic. A study suggested that odorless garlic not only activates fibrinolytic action by accelerating (tissue-type plasminogen activator) t-PA-mediated plasminogen activation, but also suppresses the coagulation system by down regulating thrombin formation, suggesting a beneficial role in preventing pathological thrombus formation in such cardiovascular disorders. A study mentioned that aqueous extract of garlic inhibits platelet aggregation induced by several aggregation agents, including arachidonate in a dose-dependent manner. Another survey indicated that garlic extracts act through inhibition of the ADP (adenosine diphosphate) pathway. Their mechanisms of action are comparable to that of the clinically used drug clopidogrel. The pharmacologically active component of the extracts appears to be lipophilic rather than hydrophilic. One study mentioned that the aromatic thiosulfonate derived from garlic is a very effective inhibitor of platelet aggregation. Diallyl trisulfide (DATS) is one of the major constituents in garlic oil and has demonstrated various pharmacological activities, such as antithrombotic. DAT-rich garlic oil showed anticoagulant action due to inhibition and/or inactivation of thrombin, in an animal study. In addition DAT-rich garlic oil benefits blood anticoagulation factors, which might further prevent the development of thrombus formation. It was shown in a survey that diallyl disulphide (DADS) and DATS - are usual constituents of garlic oil, with antiplatelet activity. They also inhibit platelet thromboxane formation. In this respect DATS is more potent than DADS. The antiplatelet activity of methyl allyltrisulfide (MATS), a component commonly present in steam-distilled garlic oil, has also been demonstrated. MATS inhibits arachidonic acid cascade at the reaction site with PGH synthase. In a study allicin and thiosulfinates were considered as responsible compounds for the (in-vitro antiaggregatory activity) IVAA response. It was also shown that the loss of activity, and the partial loss of antithrombotic effect in crushed-cooked garlic may be compensated by increasing the amount consumed. A study showed that allicin had the strongest antiplatelet activity at 0.4 mM inhibiting aggregation by 89%. Ajoene is another potent antiplatelet compound isolated from alcoholic extracts of garlic. It is suggested that ajoene may be potentially useful for the acute prevention of thrombus formation induced by severe vascular damage, mainly in arterial sites with low local shear rates. One study indicated that the antiaggregatory effect of ajoene is causally related to its direct interaction with the putative fibrinogen receptors. Another survey demonstrated that the antithrombotic potential of ajoene is substantially increased in the presence of physiologically and pharmacologically active antiplatelet agents. In a study, ajoene inhibited platelet aggregation induced by arachidonic acid, adrenaline collagen, adenosine diphosphate and calcium ionophore. The nature of the inhibition was irreversible. It has been suggested that supplements of garlic could adversely affect coagulation when taken alone or in combination with antiplatelet medications. In a study coadministration of aged garlic extract and cilostazol did not enhance the antiplatelet activity compared with individual drugs. Another study suggested that aged garlic extract is relatively safe and poses no serious hemorrhagic risk for closely monitored patients on warfarin oral anticoagulation therapy.

4. Blood factors

One survey mentioned that garlic has antihyperlipidemic, hypocholesterolaemic and hypo triacylglyceride activities. In one study, raw and boiled garlic improved plasma lipid metabolism and plasma antioxidant activity in rats. Thus, dietary garlic was effective in reducing the oxidant stress, which was indicated by an increase of antioxidant activity and a decrease of lipids in the rats' blood. Garlic has been shown to have applications as a hypoglycemic agent. A study suggested a new mechanism for the hypolipidemic effect of fresh garlic. Long-term dietary supplementation of fresh garlic may exert a lipid-lowering effect partly through reducing intestinal MTP (microsomal triglyceride transfer protein) gene expression, thus suppressing the assembly and secretion of chylomicrons from intestine to the blood circulation. In another study, the water soluble proteins and the essential oil of garlic were investigated for their hypolipidemic effect on hyperlipidemia induced by cholesterol containing diet in albino rats. Both garlic protein (16% of diet) and garlic oil (100 mg/kg body weight/day) exhibited significant lipid lowering effects. A survey mentioned that garlic methanol-extracts behave as hypolipidemic drugs, increasing the activity of peroxisomal fatty acyl-coenzyme A oxidase and of total carnitine acetyl-coenzyme A transferase in primary cultures of rat hepatocytes. In an in vivo study, garlic demonstrated a reduction of lipid plaques in the arteries of hypercholesterolemic animals. It decreased accumulation of cholesterol in vascular walls, and had other positive interventions. In one study, the glutathione reductase activity that was lowered in hypercholesterolemic conditions, methemoglobin concentration that was significantly increased in hypercholesterolemic rats and significant fall in hepatic total thiols in hypercholesterolemia were partially corrected by garlic. Similarly, the lowered activities of hepatic antioxidant enzymes in hypercholesterolemic rats were effectively countered by this plant. Garlic treatment significantly diminished total-cholesterol, LDL-cholesterol and triglycerides, but not HDL-cholesterol in chronic nephrotic syndrome (NS). These data indicate that garlic treatment ameliorates hyperlipidemia and renal damage in chronic NS which is unrelated to proteinuria or antioxidant enzymes. In a survey, hepatic triglyceride content that was significantly higher in high-fat fed rats was effectively countered by inclusion of the hypolipidemic spice agents such as garlic in the diet.

5. Anticancer effects

A study mentioned that phytoalexins have been identified in at least 75 plants including garlic. Preclinical evidence has suggested that these compounds possess anticancer properties including an inhibition of cell proliferation, invasion and metastasis, hormonal stimulation, and stimulatory effects on expression of metabolizing enzymes. Diallyl sulfide (DAS), diallyl disulfide (DADS) and diallyl trisulfide (DATS) derived from garlic have been shown to exhibit anticancer activities. The cytotoxicity caused by DATS is mediated by generation of ROS (reactive oxygen species) and subsequent activation of the ROS-dependent caspase pathway in U937 leukemia cells. DATS has been shown to induce apoptosis in many human cancer cell lines in vitro and also affords significant protection against cancer in animal tumor models in vivo i.e. colorectal cancer. Another suggested that DADS treatment may inhibit tumor cell motility and invasion and therefore, act as a dietary source to decrease the risk of cancer metastasis.

Recently, S-allylcysteine (SAC) has been identified as a potent compound derived from garlic. This substance has in vitro chemo-preventive activity. It may also be a promising candidate for prostate cancer treatment. Allicin (diallyl thiosulfinate), the best-known biologically active component in freshly crushed garlic extract, is effective on cell proliferation of colon cancer cells. A study indicated that the anticancer action of aged black garlic extract may be partly due to its antioxidant and immunomodulative effects.

6. Anti-inflammatory effect

Garlic extracts have been shown to exert anti-inflammatory effects. In one study, garlic treatment significantly attenuated inflammation and injury of the liver induced by Eimeria papillata infections. The anti-inflammatory activity exhibited by garlic oil is mainly through inhibiting the assembly-disassembly processes of the cytoskeleton. Other authors have shown the preventive effect and possible toxicity of garlic oil and its organosulfur compounds in endotoxin-induced systemic inflammation and intestinal damage. A lead compound derived from allicin is shown to be a good starting point for the development of anti-inflammatory drugs with fewer side effects.

One study indicated that thiacremonone, a sulfur compound isolated from garlic, inhibits neuroinflammation and amyloidogenesis through inhibition of NF-κB activity, and thus could be applied for intervention in inflammation-related neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease.

7. Immunomodulatory effect

Immunomodulation is among innumerable biological activities of A. sativum. Aged garlic extract has been shown to have superior immunomodula-tory properties over raw garlic extract. This effect of garlic is attributed to the transformed organosulfur compounds. Aged garlic fructans have recently been shown to possess immunomodulatory activities in vitro. Garlic extract is concentration-dependently effective on the proliferation of interleukin (IL)-2 and interferon (INF)-γ gene expression of stimulated lymphocytes. Garlic extracts reduced macrophage infection through induction of nitric oxide (NO) production In vitro.

A study demonstrated that immune-mediated liver damage in mice can be prevented by allicin, probably because of its immunomodulatory effects on T cells and adhesion molecules and inhibition of NF-kappaB activation. Another observation indicated that allicin exerts an inhibitory immunomodulatory effect on intestinal epithelial cells and it may have the potential to attenuate intestinal inflammation. Allicin exerted an in vitro immunomodulatory effect on certain functions of the peripheral blood cells.

8. Toxicology

One study indicated that garlic application usually results in local inflammation, but, if applied under a pressure bandage, or if there is poor wound care or a secondary infection, it can cause a severe dermal reaction and a deep chemical burn. Data of a study showed that a high garlic dose induced liver toxicity and a pro-oxidative status characterized by increased malondialdehyde and decreased antioxidant enzyme activities as catalase, peroxidase, and superoxide dismutase. Another study suggested that garlic with high dose has the potential ability to induce liver damage. A parallel study also highlighted the potential ability of a high dose of garlic to induce morphological changes in the liver and kidneys. Administration of high doses of garlic (500 mg/kg) results in profound changes in lung and liver tissues of rats. Intraperitoneal administration of the high dose of garlic is more damaging to lung and liver tissue of rats than oral administration ^95-98.

9. CONCLUSION

Garlic may interact with warfarin, antiplatelets, saquinavir, antihypertensives, calcium channel blockers, quinolone family of antibiotics such as ciprofloxacin, and hypoglycemic drugs, as well as other medications. One survey suggested that allicin lowered intraocular pressure, in part, by dual actions at the neuroeffector junction. Oxidative damage by free radicals has been implicated in the pathogenesis of vascular disease in hypertension. Authors concluded that the total antioxidant status can be significantly improved by treatment with garlic. An in vivo study indicated that garlic blocks hypoxic pulmonary hypertension and demonstrated a combination of endothelium-dependent and -independent mechanisms for the effect in pulmonary arterial rings.

10. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Dr. Amean A. Al-yasiri, College of Nursing, for valuable suggestions and encouragement.

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27. Sosa AA, Bagi SH, Hameed IH. Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Euphorbia lathyrus using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. 2016; 8(5): 109-126.

28. Altameme HJ, Hadi MY, Hameed IH. Phytochemical analysis of Urtica dioica leaves by fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015; 7(10): 238-252.

29. Mohammed GJ, Omran AM, Hussein HM. Antibacterial and Phytochemical Analysis of Piper nigrum using Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrum and Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. 2016; 8(6): 977-996.

30. Hamza LF, Kamal SA, Hameed IH. Determination of metabolites products by Penicillium expansum and evaluating antimicobial activity. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015; 7(9): 194-220.

31. Jasim H, Hussein AO, Hameed IH, Kareem MA. Characterization of alkaloid constitution and evaluation of antimicrobial activity of Solanum nigrum using gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015; 7(4): 56-72.

32. Hadi MY, Mohammed GJ, Hameed IH. Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Nigella sativa using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2016; 8(2): 8-24.

33. Hameed IH, Ibraheam IA, Kadhim HJ. Gas chromatography mass spectrum and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy analysis of methanolic extract of Rosmarinus oficinalis leaves. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015; 7 (6): 90-106.

34. Shareef HK, Muhammed HJ, Hussein HM, Hameed IH. Antibacterial effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale) roscoe and bioactive chemical analysis using gas chromatography mass spectrum. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2016; 32(2): 20-40.

35. Al-Jassaci MJ, Mohammed GJ, Hameed IH. Secondary Metabolites Analysis of Saccharomyces cerievisiae and Evaluation of Antibacterial Activity. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2016; 8(5): 304-315.

36. Mohammed GJ, Al-Jassani MJ, Hameed IH. Anti-bacterial, Antifungal Activity and Chemical analysis of Punica grantanum (Pomegranate peel) using GC-MS and FTIR spectroscopy. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. 2016; 8(3): 480-494.

37. Dhahir BM, Hameed IH, Jaber AR. Prospective and Retrospective Study of Fractures According to Trauma Mechanism and Type of Bone Fracture. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(10):1827-1835.

38. Hapeep MA, Hameed IH, Jasim AA. Risk Factors, Cause and Site of Firearm Injuries: A Prospective and Retrospective Study. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(10): 3420-3425.

39. Jasim AA, Hameed IH, Hapeep MA. Traumatic Events in an Urban and Rural Population of Children, Adolescents and Adults in Babylon Governorate - Iraq. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(10): 3429-3434.

40. Al-Marzoqi AH, Hadi MY, Hameed IH. Determination of metabolites products by Cassia angustifolia and evaluate antimicobial activity. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2016; 8(2): 25-48.

41. Altameme HJ, Hameed IH, Abu-Serag NA. Analysis of bioactive phytochemical compounds of two medicinal plants, Equisetum arvense and Alchemila valgaris seed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Malays. Appl. Biol. 2015; 44(4): 47–58.

42. Hameed IH, Hamza LF, Kamal SA. Analysis of bioactive chemical compounds of Aspergillus niger by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015;7(8): 132-163.

43. Hameed IH, Hussein HJ, Kareem MA, Hamad NS. Identification of five newly described bioactive chemical compounds in methanolic extract of Mentha viridis by using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015; 7 (7): 107-125.

44. Hussein HM, Hameed IH, Ibraheem OA. Antimicrobial Activity and spectral chemical analysis of methanolic leaves extract of Adiantum Capillus-Veneris using GC-MS and FT-IR spectroscopy. International Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytochemical Research. 2016; 8(3): 369-385.

45. Hussein HJ, Hadi MY, Hameed IH. Study of chemical composition of Foeniculum vulgare using Fourier transform infrared spectrophotometer and gas chromatography - mass spectrometry. Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2016; 8(3): 60-89.

46. Kadhim MJ, Mohammed GJ, Hameed IH. In vitro antibacterial, antifungal and phytochemical analysis of methanolic fruit extract of Cassia fistula. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2016; 32(2): 10-30.

47. Altameme HJ, Hameed IH, Idan SA, Hadi MY. Biochemical analysis of Origanum vulgare seeds by fourier-transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). Journal of Pharmacognosy and Phytotherapy. 2015; 7(9): 221-237.

48. Hussein HM. Analysis of trace heavy metals and volatile chemical compounds of Lepidium sativum using atomic absorption spectroscopy, gas chromatography-mass spectrometric and fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences. 2016; 7(4): 2529 – 2555.

49. Hameed IH. A new polymorphic positions discovered in mitochondrial DNA hypervariable region HVIII from central and north-central of Iraq. Mitochondrial DNA. 2016; 27(5): 3250-4.

50. Jaddoa HH, Hameed IH, Mohammed GJ. Analysis of volatile metabolites released by Staphylococcus aureus using gas chromatography-Mass spectrometry and determination of its antifungal activity. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2016; 32(4): 8-24.

51. Hameed IH, SalmanHD, Mohammed GJ. Evaluation of antifungal and antibacterial activity and analysis of bioactive phytochemical compounds of Cinnamomum zeylanicum (Cinnamon bark) using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Oriental Journal of Chemistry. 2016; 32(4): 16-25.

52. Hameed IH, Jebor MA, Ommer AJ, Abdulzahra AI. Haplotype data of mitochondrial DNA coding region encompassing nucleotide positions 11,719–12,184 and evaluate the importance of these positions for forensic genetic purposes in Iraq. Mitochondrial DNA. 2016; 27(2): 1324-1327.

53. Kadhim MJ, Mohammed GJ, Hussein HM. Analysis of bioactive metabolites from Candida albicans using (GC-MS) and evaluation of antibacterial activity. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2016; 8(7): 655-670.

54. Mohammad A, Imad H. Autosomal STR: From locus information to next generation sequencing technology. Research Journal of Biotechnology. 2013; 1(2): 15-23.

55. Hameed IH, Abdulzahra AI, Jebor MA, Kqueen CY. Ommer, A.J. Haplotypes and variable position detection in the mitochondrial DNA coding region encompassing nucleotide positions 10,716-11,184. Mitochondrial DNA. 2015; 3(6): 1-9.

56. Ubaid JM, Hussein HM, Hameed IH. Analysis of bioactive compounds of Tribolium castaneum and evaluation of anti-bacterial activity. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2016; 8(7): 655-670.

57. Altaee N, Kadhim MJ, Hameed IH. Detection of volatile compounds produced by Pseudomonas aeruginosa isolated from UTI patients by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 2017; 7(6): 8-24.

58. Altaee N, Kadhim MJ, Hameed IH. Characterization of metabolites produced by E. coli and analysis of its chemical compounds using GC-MS. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 2017; 7(6): 13-19.

59. Hussein JH, Ubaid JM, Hameed IH. Gas chromatography – mass spectrum analysis of volatile components of methanolic leaves extract of Cordia myxa. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 2017; 7(6): 16-22.

60. Hameed, I.H., Al-Rubaye A.F. and Kadhim, M.J. Antimicrobial Activity of Medicinal Plants and Urinary Tract Infections. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2017; 8(11): 44-54.

61. Kadhim WA, Kadhim, M.J., Hameed, I.H. Antibacterial Activity of Several Plant Extracts Against Proteus Species. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2017; 8(11): 88-94.

62. Ahmed MD, Hameed IH, Abd-Ali MQ. Prospective and Retrospective Study of the Acute Heart Attack Cases in Marjan Hospital-Hillah City-Iraq. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(10): 3408-3416.

63. Fakhir DF, Hameed IH, Flayyih SS. Burns Injuries: A Prospective Statistical Study of 112 patients. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(10): 3401-3407.

64. Mekhlef AK, Hameed IH, Khudhair ME. Prevalence of Physical Injuries on the Head, Neck and Entire Body in, Hilla, Iraq. Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology. 2017; 10(10): 3276-3282.

65. Kadhim MJ. In Vitro antifungal potential of Acinetobacter baumannii and determination of its chemical composition by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Der Pharma Chemica. 2016; 8(19): 657-665.

66. Hameed IH, Al-Rubaye AF, Kadhim MJ. Antimicrobial Activity of Medicinal Plants and Urinary Tract Infections. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2017; 9(1): 44-50.

67. Al-Rubaye AF, Hameed IH, Kadhim MJ. A Review: Uses of Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (GC-MS) Technique for Analysis of Bioactive Natural Compounds of Some Plants. International Journal of Toxicological and Pharmacological Research. 2017; 9(1); 81-85.

68. Al-Rubaye AF, Kadhim MJ, Hameed IH. Characterization of Antifungal Secondary Metabolites Produced by Klebsiella pneumoniae and Screening of its Chemical Compounds Using GC-MS. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 8(2); 141-148.

69. Hameed IH, Al-Rubaye AF, Kadhim MJ. Uses of Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Technique in Pharmaceutical Analysis: A Review. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 2017; 8(2): 79-84.

70. Al-Rubaye AF, Kadhim MJ, Hameed IH. Phytochemical Profiles of Methanolic Seeds Extract of Cuminum cyminum using GC-MS Technique. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 2017; 8(2): 114-124.

71. Hameed IH, Al-Rubaye AF, Kadhim MJ. Urinary Tract Infections: Characterization and Herbal Antimicrobial Activity: A Review. International Journal of Current Pharmaceutical Review and Research. 2017; 8(2): 184-191.

72. Kadhim MJ, Kaizal AF, Hameed IH. Medicinal Plants Used for Treatment of Rheumatoid Arthritis: A Review. International Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2016; 8(12): 1685-1694.

73. Ubaid JM, Kadhim MJ, Hameed IH. Study of Bioactive Methanolic Extract of Camponotus fellah Using Gas Chromatography – Mass Spectrum. International Journal of Toxicological and Pharmacological Research. 2016; 8(6): 434-439.

74. Hussein HM, Hameed IH, Ubaid JM. Analysis of the secondary metabolite products of Ammi majus and evaluation anti-insect activity. International journal of pharmacognosy and phytochemical research. 2016; 8(8): 1192-1189.

75. Hussein HM, Ubaid JM, Hameed IH. Inscticidal activity of methanolic seeds extract of Ricinus communis on adult of callosobruchus maculatus (coleopteran:brauchidae) and analysis of its phytochemical composition. International journal of pharmacognosy and phytochemical research. 2016; 8(8): 1385-1397.

76. Ubaid JM, Hussein HM, Hameed IH. Determination of bioactive chemical composition of Callosobruchus maculutus and investigation of its anti-fungal activity. International journal of pharmcognosy and phytochemical research. 2016; 8(8): 1293-1299.

77. Turati F, Guercio V, Pelucchi C, La V, Carlo; Galeone C. Colorectal cancer and adenomatous polyps in relation to allium vegetables intake: a meta-analysis of observational studies. Molecular Nutrition & Food Research. 2014; 58 (9): 1907–1914.

78. Woo H, Park S, Oh K, Kim HJ, Shin HR, Moon HK, Kim J. Diet and cancer risk in the Korean population: a meta-analysis. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2014; 15 (19): 8509–19.

79. Chiavarini, M, Minelli, L, Fabiani, R. Garlic consumption and colorectal cancer risk in man: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Public Health Nutrition. 2016; 19 (2): 308–317.

80. Zhou XF, Ding ZS, Liu NB. Allium vegetables and risk of prostate cancer: evidence from 132,192 subjects. Asian Pacific Journal of Cancer Prevention. 2013; 14 (7): 4131–4.

81. Zhou X, Ding Z, Liu N. Allium vegetables and risk of prostate cancer: evidence from 132,192 subjects. Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention: APJCP. 2013; 14 (7): 4131–4134.

82. Lissiman, E, Bhasale A, Cohen M. Garlic for the common cold. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2014; 11 (11): CD006206.

83. Allan GM, Arroll B. Prevention and treatment of the common cold: making sense of the evidence. Canadian Medical Association Journal. 2014; 186 (3): 190–9.

84. Anwar A, Groom M, Sadler-Bridge D. Garlic: from nature's ancient food to nematicide. Pesticide News. 2009; 84: 18–20.

85. Ranjan S, Dasgupta N, Saha P, Rakshit M, Ramalingam C. Comparative study of antibacterial activity of garlic and cinnamon at different temperature and its application on preservation of fish. Advances in Applied Science Research. 2012; 3 (1): 495–501.

86. Verma V, Singh R, Tiwari RK, Srivastava N, Verma A. Antibacterial activity of extracts of Citrus, Allium & Punica against food borne spoilage. Asian Journal of Plant Science and Research. 2012; 2 (4): 503–509.

87. Brown DG, Wilkerson EC, Love WE. A review of traditional and novel oral anticoagulant and antiplatelet therapy for dermatologists and dermatologic surgeons. Journal of the American Academy of Dermatology. 2015; 72 (3): 524–34.

88. Lanzotti V, Barile E, Antignani V, Bonanomi G, Scala F. Antifungal saponins from bulbs of garlic, Allium sativum L. var. Voghiera. Phytochemistry. 2012; 78:126–34.

89. Azimi H, Fallah-Tafti M, Karimi-Darmiyan M, Abdollahi M. A comprehensive review of vaginitis phytotherapy. Pak J Biol Sci. 2011;14:960–966.

90. Meriga B, Mopuri R, MuraliKrishna T. Insecticidal, antimicrobial and antioxidant activities of bulb extracts of Allium sativum. Asian Pac J Trop Med. 2012; 5:391–395.

91. Pundir RK, Jain P, sharma CH. Antimicrobial activity of ethanolic extracts of syzygium aromaticum and Allium sativum against food associated bacteria and fungi. Ethnobotan Leaflets. 2010; 14: 344–360.

92. Liu S, Sun Y, Li W, Yu H, Li X, Liu Z. The antibacterial mode of action of allitridi for its potential use as a therapeutic agent against Helicobacter pylori infection. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2010;303: 183–189.

93. Palaksha MN, Ahmed M, Das S. Antibacterial activity of garlic extract on streptomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli solely and in synergism with streptomycin. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2010;1:12–5.

94. Lai PK, Roy J. Antimicrobial and chemopreventive properties of herbs and spices. Curr Med Chem. 2004;11: 1451–1460.

95. Chavan SD, Shetty NL, Kanuri M. Comparative evaluation of garlic extract mouthwash and chlorhexidine mouthwash on salivary Streptococcus mutans count - an in vitro study. Oral Health Prev Dent. 2010;8: 369–374.

96. Appel E, Vallon-Eberhard A, Rabinkov A, Brenner O, Shin I, Sasson K. Therapy of murine pulmonary aspergillosis with antibody-alliinase conjugates and alliin. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2010; 54:898–906.

97. An M, Shen H, Cao Y, Zhang J, Cai Y, Wang R. Allicin enhances the oxidative. Int J Antimicrob Agents. 2009;33:258–263.

98. Ogita A, Fujita K, Taniguchi M, Tanaka T. Enhancement of the fungicidal activity of amphotericin B by allicin, an allyl-sulfur compound from garlic, against the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae as a model system. Planta Med. 2006;72:1247–1250.

Part of plant	System	Effects	Preparation	Ref.
Fruits	Human food and beverage	adhesive in mending glass and porcelain	sticky juice within the bulb cloves	3
		nematicide and insecticide	garlic-derived	59
		fish and meat preservative	extract	60
		displays antimicrobial effects at temperatures as high as 120 degree	extract	61
		in folk medicine	extract	5
		items in a Seven-Seen table	-------------	71
		warm the body and to increase one's desires	eaten	73
	Medicinal	Antihypertensive	eaten	56
		Antiatherosclerotic	eaten	88
		Antithrombotic	eaten	103
		Blood factors	powder	124
		Immunomodulatory effect	eaten	160
	Treatment	preventing cardiovascular diseases	garlic intake	39 40
		reduce platelet aggregation		46 45
		cancers of the upper digestive tract		46 45
		cancers of the upper digestive tract		48
		decreased risk of prostate cancer		56
		treatment for the common cold		57
	Pharmacological and biological Activities	Antimicrobial Activity	essential oils	7 8
		Anti-parasitic	Extracts	37
		Antiviral	Extracts	52,10