INTRODUCTION:

The different parts of the plant provide a wide variety of biochemical components useful to humanity. The medicinal plants are can be extracted and used in the manufacturing of the drug, or the plant itself can be used directly as a medicine¹. However, some medicinal plants which are being used, on a large scale for the healing of disease are accounted to be having serious side effects. The scientific studies reported that there are many phytochemicals which have caused serious toxic effects in the body². Many medicinal herbs contain xenobiotic agents and the biotransformation products. This substance can be potentially hazardous in our body. The effects may arise directly with obvious signs after the intake or in their prolonged use not including any sign or symptom that can be severe and sometimes fatal^3,4.

Abrus precatorious belonging to fabaceae family (Table no. 1) possess therapeutic potential with high pharmacological and therapeutic attributes⁵. The plant A. precatorius is commonly known as crabs eye, Indian liquorice, and jequirity. In different parts of India, this plant has been named in several languages (Table no. 2).The plant is a perennial twining woody shrub; young stems are puberulent. Pinnate leaves with 12-16 pairs of leaflets. The base is oblong to elliptic, with an obtuse apex. The color of flowers is pink, in axillary racemes, deltoid bracts. Calyx is long and hispid with 9-12 mm long petals. Stamens are monadelphous, sub-sessile ovary and many ovules, with style incurved. Pods are oblong, a little inflated, fulvo-puberulent. Glossy seed, bright scarlet, with the area around the hilum (point of attachment) being black. Three varieties of A. precatorious (black, white and red) commonly found throughout the tropics⁶. The seed of purified A. precatorious has been reported to treat alopecia, itching, edema, urinary disorders, etc^7-10. Seeds of A. precatorious are used by the Indian tribes as purgative, abortifacient, anti-fertility, an antimicrobial agent and in CNS, pneumonia, skin diseases, etc^11-15. The root of A. precatorious is emetic, alexiteric and also used in CNS, sore throat, dry cough, rheumatism, and leucoderma^16-19.In this review, an effort is made to present an overall summary of the ethnopharmacological uses of A. precatorious mentioned in different Ayurvedic classical texts and other literature along with its reported toxicity to reveal and highlight the areas involving advanced research works of this plant.

Effect of purification on the seed of A. precatorius:

Several phytoconstituents like alkaloid (abrin, choline, 5 cholinic acid, hypaphorine, abralin), steroids (abricin, abrectorin abridin), triterpene glycosides (abusosides A, B, and C), flavonoids (vitexin, liquirtiginin-7-mono-diglycosides, toxifolin-3-glucosides, 4,5,7-trihydroxy flavon) have been isolated from the leaves, roots and seeds of A. precatorious^20-22. The lethal dose of abrin is found to be 0.1-1 μg/kg in adults^23,24. In classical Ayurvedic texts purification method of Seed of A. precatorius is mentioned. HPLC study of A. Precatorious seed extract before and after the purification process showed that the toxic level of alkaloid (hypaphorine) decreases while the abrin which is less toxic is increased. In an investigation, it has been demonstrated that during purification process a large amount of toxic alkaloid (hypaphorine) might have undergone conversion into less toxic (abrine) by adecrease of its tertiary amino group into the primary amino group. Percentage level of protein is also decreased after purification process²⁵.

Table 1. Scientific classification of A. precatorius²⁶

Kingdom:	Plantae
Division	Magnoliophyta
Order	Fabales
Family	Fabaceae
Subfamily	Faboideae
Tribe	Abreae
Genus	Abrus
Species	A. precatorius

Table 2. Names of A. precatorius in different languages²⁷

English	Abrus or Indian Licorice root, Crabs eye, John Crow Bead, Abrus seed
Hindi	Gamanchi, Gunchi
Kannada	Gulaganji, Gulgunji
Teugu	Guruginia, Guruvinda
Marathi	Gunj, A. precatorious
Bengali	Kunch, Koonch
Gujarathi	Chanoti,Gumchi, Chanothi
Tamil	Gundumani
Malayalam	Kunni, Gundumani
Farsi	Chasmekharosh
Punjabi	Mulati
Urdu	Ghunchi
Kasmiri	Shangir
Persian	Gunchi, Chashami, Khurosa

Ethnomedicinal Use of A. precatorius:

The different parts of A. precatorius have been reported for its use in a cough, malaria, convulsion, bronchitis, hepatitis, and abortion. It is used as an aphrodisiac, emetic and purgative. The ethnomedicinal uses of A. precatorius are enlisted in Table no. 3.

Table No. 3: Ethnomedicinal Use of A. precatorius in various countries:

Country	Part used	Preparations	Medicinal use	Reference
Afghanistan Brazil	Dried seeds Leaves and stem	Powder Powder	Aphrodisiac Antidote	[28] [29]
	Dried leaves and root	Decoction	Nerve tonic	[30]
Cambodia	Seeds	Decoction	Malaria	[31]
Central Africa	Root	Chewed	Snake bite	[25]
	Seeds	Powder	intestinal worms, oral contraceptive
East Africa	Aerial parts, seeds	Decoction	Gonorrhea	[33]
	leaf	juice	Gonorrhea, stomach troubles	[33]
	Leaves	Powder	Cuts, swellings	[33]
	Leaves	Decoction	Chest pains, inflamed eyes	[33]
West Africa	dried roots	Decoction	Antiemetic, tapeworms, gonorrhea	[33]
	Root	Chewed	Aphrodisiac	[32] 34]
Egypt	Seeds	Powder	Aphrodisiac	[35]
Guinea-Bissau	Leaf	Pulp	Aphrodisiac	[36]
	Seeds	Powder	Aphrodisiac, abortive	[36]
Haiti	Leaves	Decoction	Coughs and flu	[37]
India	leaves and roots	Decoction	Eye diseases, emmenagogue	[38] [39]
	Root	Juice	Abortion	[40] [20]
	Seeds	Decoction	Antifertility, prevent conception, tuberculosis, painful swellings	[39] [40] [41]
Ivory Coast	Leaves and stem	Decoction	Aphrodisiac, facilitate childbirth	[42]
Jamaica	Dried leaves and root	Decoction	Rejuvenating agents	[28]
Kenya	Leaf	Juice	Coughs	[43]
Mozambique	Root	Decoction	Aphrodisiac	[44]
Nepal	Seeds	Decoction	Aphrodisiac	[45]
Nigeria	Root	Decoction	Antimalarial, anticonvulsant	[46]
Pakistan	Seeds	Decoction	Aphrodisiac, abortion	[47]
Sudan	Leaf		Antifertility	[48]
Taiwan	Dried root	Decoction	Bronchitis, hepatitis	[49]
Tanzania	Roots, leaf	Decoction	Asthma, aphrodisiac	[32]
Thailand	Leaves	Juice	Anti-inflammatory	[50]
Virgin Islands	Seeds	Decoction	Coughs	[51]
West Indies	Seeds	Decoction	Emetic, purgative,	[52]

Table 4. Toxicity study of A. precatorius:

Place	Extract	Dose	Toxicity	Reference
Nigeria	Aqueous extract of leaves	400, 800 and 1600 mg/kg in 20 rats over a period of 18 days	Reduction in the level of packed cell volume, haemoglobin concentration, RBC count, WBC count, mean corpuscular volume and mean corpuscular haemoglobin. Increased level of total serum protein, albumin, SGOT, SGPT and total bilirubin. Histopathologically, damage in testicular cell considered by decreased numbers of the epithelium lining cells and decrease in sperm cells with existence of scattered sertoli cells was noted	[53]
Tanzania	Methanol extract of seed	1600, 2900 and 5000 mg/ kg, p.o. b.w. for seven days in mice	Acute oral toxicity test did not show any mortality up to the maximum tested dose of 5000mg/kg b.w.	[54]
India	Ethanolic leaves extract	500 mg/kg, per os for 14 days in rats	In sub-acute toxicity, none of the animals showed any obvious morbidity clinical symptoms of toxicity such as changes in the skin, fur, eyes, respiratory rate, autonomic (salivation, perspiration, and piloerection) and central nervous system (ptosis and drowsiness) effects throughout the experimental period of 14 days.	[55]
Nigeria	Aqueous extract seed in mice (acute) and Wister rats (sub-acute)	In acute 500 mg extract/kg body weight p.o1.0 mg extract/kg b.w. i.p. In subacute toxicity 0.20 mg extract/kg body weight (i.p.),	In acute toxicity studies, the aqueous extract of A. precatorius seed is highly toxic in rodent model throughout the i.p. route, but it was found less toxic when given through the oral route. In subacute toxicity studies, a decrease in body weight, red blood cell count, lymphocyte count, feed and water intake, and a significant increase in white blood cell count and eosinophil count. The dose dependent significant increase in serum ALP, ALT and AST and a significant decrease in serum albumin.	[56]
Nigeria	Aqueous extract, 70 % methanol extract, acetone extract, petroleum ether extract of leaves in rats	Acute toxicity study 240, 480, 960, 1920, 5000mg/kg b.w.	70% methanolic and pet ether extract did not cause a net weight gain or loss, whereas the acetone extract caused a severe weight loss in test animals. The acetone and pet ether extracts were observed to be hepatotoxic and nephrotoxic at the oral limit dose of 5000mg/kg.	[57]
Sudan	Ethanolic extract of seed in mice and rats	In acute toxicity 200, 400 mg/kg	The ethanolic extract was found to be safe when given in a high dose (200 and 400mg/kg) acutely in rats. Chronic administration of the extract for 30 days orally at a dose of 20mg/kg and 40 mg/kg produced no toxic effects, and postmortem examination detected no signs of toxicity. Red and white blood cells count, haemoglobin and haematocrit did not vary in the treated groups from the control group. Serum electrolytes (Na and K), creatinine and urea, were not affected. Liver enzymes; AST, ALT ALP, serum albumin and proteins were normal in both low and high dose of precatorius extract.	[58]
India	70% of methanolic seed extract in rats	2000 mg/kg b.w. For 14 days.	At a dose level of 2000 mg/kg, b.w. The hydro-methanolic seed extract of A. precatorius no death occurred during the observation period of 2 weeks. It was found that there was no major loss of fur and skin lesions in rats.	[59]
India	Aqueous and detoxified extract seed in rats	2g/kg for 14 days p.o.	The acute toxicity caused mortality but did not show any significant change in the b.w. and the food and water intake in mice.	[60]
Nigeria	Aqueous extracts of leaves in mice	10, 50 and 250 mg/kg b.w. i.p.	The extract caused increased packed cell volume, neutropenia and decreased aspartate aminotransferase. The lymphocytosis and hyperleptinaemia were observed in all the test doses.	[61]

Toxicological Case Studies of A. precatorious:

Warden and Waddell have reported a case study of seed of A. precatorious. In this study seed of A. precatorious was found toxic in animal when it was injected subcutaneously⁶². Kober, 1902 reported the action of phytoconstituents in carnivore and herbivore. The study suggested that the action of phytoconstituents is much more severe in the carnivore than in the herbivore. He also reported two case studies of seed of A.precatorious. In his first study, the result revealed that infusion of seed produced toxic effect like throat, high fever, pain and swelling in human body. The second case study, it was found that seed powder of this plant causes nausea, vomiting, severe diarrhea, weakness, colic and rapid pulse in human^63,64. Ramburgh et al. 1911 have reported convulsive poison of hypaphorine alkaloid isolated from A. precatorious⁶⁵. A. precatorious caused agglutination of erythrocytes, some degree of hemolysis, punctiform haemorrhage of the serious surfaces, a general enlargement of the lymphatic glands, prominence of peyers patches and dark swollen spleen⁶⁶. Madras chemical examiner annual report 1924 reported a case of attempted suicide. Although the powdered seeds of A. precatorious were taken with groundnut oil. The symptoms were vomiting, fuble pulse, cold, clammy skin, and twitching or delirium notice⁶⁷. Bukhari et al., 1976 reported that the toxicity of the seeds depends upon the manner in which they are administered. The whole seed may be swallowed with impunity because the outer covering is so hard that it escapes disintegration and the toxin is not freed. If chewed before it is swallowed half a seed may cause poisoning in man⁶⁸. Bengal the chemical examiner also described the following homicidal cause of ‘sui’ poisoning⁶⁹. In 1929 a case of attack has been reported which revealed the presence of A. precatorius. Simpson and Banerjee (1932) fed the seed to horses, goats, cattle, and dogs in the form of a bolus. The horses showed symptoms of poisoning after having received 1 ounce of the seed, while 2ounceof seed sufficed to produce death within 18 hours. The other animals were found to be much more resistant the seeds, however, are intensely poisonous if powdered are introduced under the skin of animal they rapidly produce fatal results. They are produce irritant to the mucous membranes. Other parts of the plant are also stated to possess more or less similar properties⁷⁰. Steyn 1934 reported that absorption of abrin from the gastro-intestinal tract is comparatively slow and the gastric juice partly inactivates it. It is for this reason that abrin, when administered orally, is almost hundred times less toxic than when administered subcutaneously or intravenously. They also reported that when injected into or under the skin, abrin causes severe local irritation and temporary loss of hair at the site of injection. The loss of hair is due to a specific action of the poison on the hair roots⁷¹. Ehrlich 1934 also found that the immunity of mice to abrin can be transmitted to the young through the milk⁷². Desai 1966 reported the effects of poisoning with abrin resemble very closely those of the toxalbumin, ricin, obtained from the seeds of Ricinus communis and the galbulin has been found to be more powerful than the abbumoseproteose. They further reported its irritant action on the eye. Abrin produces very severe irritation of the conjunctiva⁷³. Bengal chemical examiner annual report (1939), a case in which a person injected a brownish powder into the upper part of the jaw of a buffalo and as a result of this the jaw of a buffalo and the mouth of the Buffalo became inflamed and swollen accompanied with shivering. On analysis, the seed powder was found to contain A. precatorious⁷⁴.

Pharmacological Activity:

The chloroform and methanol seed extract of A. precatorious was reported for Anti-diabetic activity in alloxan diabetic rabbits^75,76. Anti-oxidant activity of ethanol seed extract of A. precatorious was reported by in-vitro method. Alcoholic extract of fresh root of A. precatorious was reported for Anti-convulsant in metrazole induced convulsions of mice⁷⁷. Neuroprotective effect of petroleum ether extract of aerial parts was reported in hypoxic neurotoxicity induced rats⁷⁸. Crude extract of leaves possess significant Neuromuscular effects Ethanol extract of dried leaves of A. precatorious showed blocking action on phrenic nerve-diaphragm⁷⁹. Ethanol extract of fresh root of A. precatorious was given significant anti-depressant activity in mice⁸⁰. The plant gives significant activity for memory enhancer activity in Alzheimer’s disease model⁸¹. Aqueous extract of leaves of A. precatorious reported for Antiepileptic activity⁸². The hydroalcoholic extract of aerial part of A. precatorious was showed non-significant activity at the dose level of 200 mg/kg in rats⁷⁷. But crude extract showed significant activity at the dose level of 200 mg/kg⁸³. The Nephroprotective activity of aerial parts of aqueous extract showed potent recovery effect in cisplatin and acetaminophen induced nephrotoxicity on HEK 293^84,85. Seed oil and alcoholic seed extracts of A. precatorious revealed potent antimicrobial activity against microorganisms^86-90. In another study it was found that several chemical constituent like alkaloids, flavonoids and saponins were responsible for antibacterial and antifungal activity⁹¹. Dried seeds of hydroalcoholic extract of A. precatorious were inactive against HLTV-1 virus⁹². The seed of this plant showed significant anti-inflammatory activity on inflammation induced by croton oil on rat ear model⁹³. The aqueous leaves extract of A. precatorious was given significant antipyretic activity in brewer’s yeast induced pyrexia⁹⁴. Isolated protein showed to show antitumor activity on Yoshida sarcoma in rats and fibrosarcoma in mice⁹⁵. The hydroalcoholic seed extract exhibited potent cytotoxic effects on HepG2 cells in albino rats⁹⁶. The isolated alkaloid abrin showed significant Immunomodulating activity on cellular immune responses in normal and tumor-bearing animals⁹⁷. Chloroform and methanol seed extract exhibited Anti fertility activity in female rats^98-106. Abortifacient activity of aqueous, ethanol extract, chloroform and methanol, Petroleum ether, was revealed inactive on pregnant hamsters and active on pregnant rats^107-111. The Anti-implantation effect was observed in pregnant rats. The chloroform and methanol seeds extract and Ethanol and pet ether root extract gave significant results in rats^98,112. Ethanol seed extract revealed insignificant Anti-spermatogenic effect in male rats. While hydroalcoholic extract showed significant Anti-spermatogenic effect^101,102.Aqueous extract of whole plant showed cardiovascular activity in guinea pig ¹¹³. Seed and root extract of this plant showed weak Anti-helmintic activity^114,115. Isolated compound (isoflavanquinone, abruquinone) from aerial part showed Anti-malarial activity^116,117. The phyto constituent (gums, mucilages, phenolic compounds) in the seeds of A. precatorious is responsible for the wound healing activity¹¹⁸.

CONCLUSION:

The present study summarizes the data on ethno medicinal uses and toxicity of the A. precatorious up to June, 2017. Literature survey revealed that the seeds, roots, and leaves of A. precatorious were used in the different types of diseases by tribals in many countries. Toxicological investigations suggests that the oral dose of seed extract produce less toxic effect in rodents model of acute toxicity. It is also concluded that the seed extract when administered via intraperitoneal route produces a marked toxic effect. The current work also focuses on the ethnomedicinal uses of the plant which reflects several properties of the plant with respect to its various parts. The light was also thrown on the several formulations which were used by the traditional healers to cure several diseases in different parts of the world.

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Received on 13.07.2017 Modified on 28.08.2017

Research J. Pharm. and Tech 2017; 10(10):3621-3627.

DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2017.00657.6