INTRODUCTION:

Cedars are very popular ornamental trees used mostly used in horticulture. True cedar trees are native to the northern and western mountains of the Middle East countries. In ancient times, the true cedars were derived from the cedars of Lebanon. The cedarwood oil is derived from cedar trees by distillation of their wood. Cedars from the family Pinaceae (Cedrus sp.) produce most of the important oils as compared to the true cedars of Cupressaceae family (Juniperus and Cupressus species)¹. Thuja occidentalis (white cedar) belongs to the family Cupressaceae. In 19^th century, white cedar was used to treat ringworms, thrush and warts^2,3. The activity of cedar wood oil depends upon the presence of many of its active components. One of the common elements reported in several cedar wood oils is cedrol, and this is implicated for its insecticidal property⁴. In ancient times, the Egyptians used the oil of cedar trees to protect themselves from the insects (repellent effect). Cryptomeria japonica has been used in Asian traditional medicines for different treatments, including liver ailments and also for its antiulcer and antitussive activities^5,6.

Cryptomeria japonica is effective against human pathogenic bacteria (especially the multidrug-resistant Mycobacterium tuberculosis) and pathogenic fungus Cryptococcus neoformans, due to the presence of compounds like elemol, ferruginol, ent-kaur-16-ene and (+)-phyllocladene ⁷.

Linalool has been reported for its cytotoxicity against bacteria⁸.Traditionally, the Eastern Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana has been established for its enzyme induction, procarcinogenic as well as its insecticidal effects. The active compound of cedrene and cedrol is effective against Peanut Trash Bug (Elasmolomus sordidus), the Indian Meal Moth (Plodia interpunctella) and the Forage Mite (Tyrophagus putriescentiae)⁹. A 24 hour exposure of the wood essential oils of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper), Chamaecyparis lawsoniana (Port-Orford-cedar), Calocedrus decurrens (incense cedar) to adult Aedes aegypti mosquito, Ixodes scapularis deer tick and Xenopsylla cheopis rat flea was found to be toxic to these organisms. Incense cedar exhibited the highest toxicity followed by western juniper and Port-Orford-cedar¹⁰.The Callitris neocaledonica and C. sulcata heartwood exhibit antifungal activity against yeast and dermatophytic fungi like Cryptococcus neoformans, Cryptococcus gattii, Candida albicans, C. krusei, C. parapsilosis, C. glabrata and Trichophyton rubrum, T. Mentagrophytes, Microsporum gypseum and Microsporum canis respectively¹¹. The cedar oil is a complex mixture of organic compounds that is generally considered as safe but prolonged exposure may cause toxicity. The toxicity of western juniper oil and Port-Oxford cedar were reported in mice and rabbit wherein they affected the local lymph node and resulted in dermal irritation¹².

Applications of Cedar oil:

Cedar oil is reputed to have a broad spectrum of antimicrobial activity and is used to control insects that are causative agents for infectious diseases. They are also effective against plant pathogens, wood rot fungi, and show sporicidal activity along with inhibiting cancer cell proliferation ^1,5.

Activity against mosquitoes and phytopathogens:

Cryptomeria japonica (commonly known as Japanese cedar or sugi) has been studied for this application. The oil extracted from different developmental stages of Cryptomeria japonica leaves (26, 42, 58 years old) showed larvicidal activities against Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes that are responsible for causing dengue fever, chikungunya, yellow fever, filariasis and other diseases. Based on GC-MS analysis, it has been inferred that there is no significant difference in the composition of the leaves based on their age or yield. The leaves show larvicidal activities, at all the three different stages of their development studied, at 200µg/ml. In 58 year old leaves, the mortality rates of mosquitoes are strong even at a low concentration of 50µg/ml. In addition, the pure (eleven) constituents of the leave extracts of Cryptomeria japonica have been tested individually against the larvae. Among them, terpinolene, a-terpinene, c-terpinene, b-myrcene, p-cymene and 3-carene showed strong larvicidal activity against both species of mosquitoes. The excellent larvicidal effect on Aedes aegypti is due to 3-carene and against Aedes albopictus, it is due to terpinolene. It has hence been inferred that Cryptomeria japonica leaves are useful for the development of natural larvicidal formulations¹³. Tectoquinone, that is isolated from the methanolic extract of sapwood of Cryptomeria japonica (red heartwood type) shows larvicidal activity against fourth-instar larvae of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Tectoquinone has been used as a potent source of natural mosquito larvicidal compound¹⁴.

The ethanolic extract from the wood of black heartwood type Cryptomeria japonica shows larvicidal activity against fourth-instar larvae of Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus. Cubebol, the major compound isolated from the wood of Cryptomeria japonica, shows promising activity against the mosquitoes^15,16. The larvicidal activity of Cryptomeria japonica leaf essential oil against Anopheles gambiae has been explored. High larvicidal performance of essential oil was found against third instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae^17. Another study, reported with the sapwood, heartwood, bark and leaf essential oil of sugi, attests their high larvicidal activities against fourth instar larvae of Aedes aegypti. The lethal concentration of leaf essential oil shows LC₅₀ as 37.6µg/ml and LC₉₀ as 71.9µg/ml, whereas bark oil shows LC₅₀ as 48.1µg/ml and LC₉₀ as 130.3µg/ml. Both the leaf and bark essential oil exhibited good response against the larvae of Aedes aegypti. When compared to bark essential oil, the leaf essential oil of Cryptomeria japonica shows high activity. In case of the leaf, bark and heartwood essential oil of Calocedrus formosana (Taiwan Incense-cedar) and heartwood essential oil of Taiwania cryptomerioides, reasonable larvicidal activity has been observed. These studies suggest that bark and leaf essential oils of Cryptomeria japonica could be employed as promising larvicidal agents ^{18, 19,
20}.

Cryptomeria japonica is used to control the phytopathogenic microorganisms like Phytophthora capsici, Fusarium oxysporum, Pythium splendens and Ralstonia solanacearum. In case of methanol extract of Cryptomeria japonica heartwood (saw dust), that was fractionated with toluene and n-hexane to give solvent-insoluble and solvent-soluble fractions, the n-hexane-soluble fraction was seen to control the phytopathogenic organisms to a higher extent as compared to other fractions. From the n-hexane-soluble fraction, sandaracopimarinol and ferruginol were isolated and tested against the phytopathogens. Strong antibacterial effects against Ralstonia solanacearum and tolerant antifungal activities have been noticed. Both these compounds showed strong inhibition against Gram positive bacteria, but not against Gram-negative ones, except for Ralstonia solanacearum. Sandaracopimarinol is one of the important major components present in sugi that is responsible for its antibacterial activity. It has been reported that sandaracopimarinol is stronger than ferruginol in bringing about this effect^21,22.

Calocedrus formosana florin leaf has been tested against plant pathogenic fungi like Rhizoctonia solani, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium solani, Pestalotiopsis funerea, Ganoderma australe and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides. The monoterpenoid compound shows high activity when compare to sesquiterpenoid compound in the oil. Rhizoctonia solani and Fusarium oxysporum were inhibited and the mycelial growth of Fusarium solani, Pestalotiopsis funerea, Ganoderma australe and Colletotrichum gloeosporioides were also inhibited by T-muurolol and α-cadinol. When compared to other fungi, Fusarium solani and Pestalotiopsis funerea show high antifungal activity. This study proves that α-cadinol and T-muurolol have broad spectrum of antifungal activities²³. Yellow cedar heartwood oil and wood constituents show effective sporicidal activities towards the plant pathogen Phytophthora ramarum²⁴.

Pest control:

Essential oil from Himalayan cedar wood chips (Cedrus deodara) has been used to control second instars of diamond back moth, Plutella xylostella. Oil fractionation has been carried out by pentane and acetonitrile from which himachalenes and atlantones have been isolated. In addition, a total of forty compounds have been isolated from the wood chips and all these compounds inhibit the larvae of Plutella xylostella. The pentane fraction shows larvicidal activity at 287µg/ml, whereas the acetonitrile fraction shows the least toxicity at 815.48µg/ml. Himachalenes was found to be toxic at 361.84µg/ml and atlantones at 365.12µg/ml. It was inferred that the major constituent of Cedrus (himachalenes and atlantones) is responsible for the insecticidal activity and hence would be are useful in pest control^25-27. α-terpineol, isolated from the leaf of Chinese cedar (Cryptomeria fortunei), has the ability to kill Reticulitermes chinensis. This is the important pest that affects the trees and buildings in China²⁸. Α-terpineol shows excellent antitermitic activity against Reticulitermes chinensis with median lethal concentration LC₅₀ value of 0.86 mg/mL. The essential oil was an excellent alternative pesticide and reduces the noxious effect of some chemical pesticides on the environment²⁹.

Antifungal and Antitermite Activities:

The antifungal activities of three juniperus species, viz., Juniperus virginiana (eastern red-cedar), Juniperus ashei (blueberry juniper) and Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) against rot fungi have been reported. The heartwood of all the Juniperus species have been extracted with methanol, ethanol and hexane. The hexane and ethanol extracted essential oil were tested against the white-rot fungi like Trametes versicolor, Irpex lacteus and the brown-rot fungi Postia placenta and Gloeophyllum trabeum. Methanol and ethanol extracts showed increased extract yield and also the high yield of widdrol and cedrol. Juniperus ashei showed high antifungal activity followed by eastern red-cedar and western juniper. When compared to brown-rot, white-rot fungi exhibited strong action³⁰.

The leaf essential oil of Calocedrus formosana has been tested for its antifungal property against white-rot fungi, Trametes versicolor, Lenzites betulina, Pycnoporus coccineus and brown-rot fungi Laetiporus sulphurous. Three compounds from the oil (caryophyllene oxide, α-cadinol and T-muurolol) exhibit active antifungal properties and among them, α-cadinol was reported to be the best fungicidal agent²³. Calocedrus formosana Florin leaf was used to determine antitermitic activity against super termite Coptotermes formosanus. The lethal concentration LC₅₀ was found to be 27.6mg/g. T-murolol and α-Cadinol were isolated from the leaf and 100% strong inhibition has been reported with T-muurolol at 5mg/g (exposure after 14days)³¹. The sapwood and heartwood essential oils of Cryptomeria japonica and Calocedrus macrolepis var. formosana (10 mg/g) showed anti-termitic activity against Coptotermes formosanus, that is commonly known as super termite as it has the ability to consume wood rapidly. Due to the toxicity of heartwood oil, the excellent termiticidal activity was observed with it after one day of exposure. A 5 day of exposure to the leaf essential oil of Chamaecyparis obtusa var. formosana resulted in 100% mortality^32,33.

Activity against dental caries:

The cedar wood oil (Cedrus atlantica) has been used to control Streptococcus mutans. The pure essential oil has been employed to inhibit the Streptococcus mutans. The component present in the Cedrus atlantica essential oil, like cedrol, α-cedrene, β-cedrene and sesquiterpenes are found to be responsible for the antimicrobial activity³⁴.

Clearing agent in H and E staining:

Generally xylene, a hazardous agent, is used as a clearing agent in histopathology diagnosis (Hematoxylin and eosin staining). It has been ascertained that the essential oil of 8% cedar wood can be used as a comparative and effective clearing agent instead of xylene. 8% cedar wood oil ensures uniform distribution, sufficient clarity, is non-toxic and non hazardous as well³⁵.

Activity against leukemia cells:

Cedrus libani (Cedar of Lebanon), Cedrus deodara (Himalayan cedar) and Cedrus atlantica (Atlas cedar) exhibit activities against K562 human chronic myelogenous leukemia cells in vitro. Wood essential oils of the three Cedrus species have been reported for the inhibition of K562 cell propagation and induction of erythroid differentiation. The erythroid differentiation of wood oil concentration varies within the species of Cedrus. The induced percentage of erythroid differentiation of Cedrus libani, Cedrus deodara and Cedrus atlantica were found to be 5µgmL⁻¹, 25µgmL⁻¹and 10µgmL⁻¹ respectively ³⁶.

Cryptomeria japonica induces apoptosis in human oral epidermoid carcinoma cells through activation of caspases and by inducing mitochondrial stress^37,38. The essential oil of Cryptomeria japonica induces apoptosis in KB cells (mouth epidermal carcinoma cells) in a dose and time-dependent manner. A dosage of 0.2mg/mL essential oil has been used to inhibit cell viability upon a12 hour exposure. The essential oil is also reported to induce a prompt and transient caspase-3 activity and splitting of PARP (Poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase) of the KB cells. Treating of the cells with the essential oil induces mitochondrial stress and results in the release of cytochrome c into the cytosol. It has been suggested that Cryptomeria japonica may have the potential to be employed as a chemo therapeutic and chemo preventive agent³⁹.

Antimicrobial Activity:

Pacific Northwest woods have been used to study their antimicrobial activities against yeast and anaerobic bacteria. Essential oils from western juniper (Juniperus occidentalis), western red cedar (Thuja plicata), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), Alaska or yellow cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis) and western yellow cedar (Pinus ponderosa) have been tested. All the essential oils inhibit anaerobic bacteria and yeast, among which western juniper and Alaska cedar exhibit strong activity. α- and β-cedrene, present in western juniper play an important role in the induction of the antimicrobial activity. Candida albicans, Clostridium perfringens, Actinomyces bovis and Fusobacterium necrophorum have been used in the study^40,41,42. The essential oil of Cryptomeria japonica shows antibacterial activity against Legionella pneumophila ^43,44. Cedrus libani is commonly used to treat infectious diseases as a traditional medicine in Lebanon. The wood oil of Cedrus libani is reported to control (HSV-1) herpes simplex in an in vitro study⁴⁵.

Activity Against Tinea pedis:

Japanese cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), and false arborvitae (Thujopsis dolabrata) essential oils of wood chips, from used sake barrels, have been reported for their antifungal properties against dermatophytic fungus, Trichophyton rubrum, that is the causative agent for interdigital Tinea pedis⁴⁶.

Anti Ulcer and Antioxidant Properties:

Cryptomeria japonica leaf essential oil inhibits ulceration. Sesquiterpene, elemol, terpinen-4-ol and a monoterpene are the major active compounds that exhibit this property. Lowering of gastric juice secretion may be responsible for this property in case of Terpinen-4-ol ⁴⁷.

The major compounds contained in the essential oil from Cryptomeria japonica are kaurene, bornyl acetate, nezukol, (-)-4-terpineol, α-terpineol, α-eudesmol, δ-cadinene, γ-eudesmol and elemol. Its essential oil was tested for the antioxidant property and whitening. This is due to inhibition of tyrosinase that controls the production of melanin. (-)-4-terpinenol and δ-cadinene are reported to have high antioxidant activity and nezukol and bornyl acetate show excellent superoxide dismutase (SOD)-like activities ^48,49. This study proves the potential of the heartwood powder of Cedrus deodara for the free radical scavenging activity⁵⁰.

CONCLUSION:

Cedar wood oil is reputed to have a medicinal value from the ancient times. Its effective role against a broad spectrum of microbes has been well established. Its anti cancer, anti cough, anti ulcer, anti inflammation, and anti repellent effects have also been scantily reported and documented. Hence more comprehensive studies are warranted with respect to these studies for its effective use in the areas of pharmacology and toxicology.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT:

The Authors are grateful to the Management of VIT University for providing the facilities for the preparation of this manuscript.

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Received on 30.08.2015 Modified on 12.09.2015

Research J. Pharm. and Tech. 8(12): Dec., 2015; Page 1714-1718

DOI: 10.5958/0974-360X.2015.00308.X